The facets of Indigenous Knowledge
Western or international science tends to separate religion
and ritual on one hand from livelihood on the other.
Furthermore, livelihood activities fall into disciplines, such
as agriculture, forestry, natural resource management,
aquaculture, human health, veterinary medicine and livestock
management.
IK, in contrast, is holistic and culturally bound. This is plain in many of the symposium's papers. Reichel's paper on Amazonian tribes, for example, shows that religion and ritual can be important in conserving the environment. Duhaylungsod's case study from the Laguna uplands in the Philippines illustrates the complexity of local farming systems.
Because international science has difficulties in recording and analyzing IK in its holistic form, the order of the symposium sessions followed the international science model. It thus divides IK into the technical disciplines listed above. The dilemma originating from the different approaches of the two knowledge systems--holistic versus disciplinary-- came to the fore in discussions on how the IK network centres can capture indigenous knowledge systems. There was a feeling that professionals have not really looked carefully at this issue, and efforts so far have succeeded in the fragmentation of IK systems.
Among the technical papers presented, those on agriculture dominate. They range from general case studies to the description of specific practices, such as farmers' pest control methods and classification systems. Slikkerveer highlights the origin and development of agricultural IK in Kenya. Kabuye introduces an indigenous food plant programme in Kenya, while Wongsamun describes how farmers in Thailand grow sweet potatoes and make compost in livestock pens--both low-cost practices suitable for local farming conditions.
Two papers contain information on local pest-control methods. Ulluwishewa gives an extensive overview of practices in Sri Lanka and concludes that many of these make sense from a scientific perspective. Palomar et al. focus on the knowledge of sweet potato growers in Leyte, Philippines. Although these farmers are aware of and differentiate several sweet potato diseases, they do little to control such pests.
Tamang describes soil classification and fertility management by Nepalese farmers. Farmers' views of causes and problems contrast with those of outsiders. Solutions brought by outsiders thus fail to address the problems farmers face. She stresses that outsiders can learn from the farmers' approach to problem-solving.
Another agricultural session dealt with genetic resources. Fujisaka et al. studied what Filipinos desire in an upland rice variety. The papers of Prain and Mula relate to the conservation of genetic resources. Mula describes in situ conservation of sweet potatoes in home gardens in northern highlands of the Philippines. Prain explains how local people can participate in crop germplasm research.
After agriculture, the symposium gave most attention to forestry. The approach of the forestry participants was unlike that of the agriculturists. This may derive from a difference between the two activities. Agriculture involves the conscious conservation of plant materials and crops. Each season, farmers select crops and cultivate them with care and attention. IK research in agriculture thus focuses on classification and understanding, without a strong element of advocacy.
Forestry, on the other hand, in its simplest but most common form, is a practice akin to hunting and gathering. Foresters show interest in sustainable practices that limit off-take from the land, for nature's regeneration is slow and uncertain. Thus, rather than intensive harvesting and replanting as in agriculture, foresters focus on limiting harvesting and emphasizing natural regeneration. They tend to be more in the conservationist camp than is true for the agriculturists.
The three papers on forestry by Boonto, Messerschmidt, and Bhandari/Pokharel argue that local people do not destroy but maintain their forest resources. Governments have commonly overlooked indigenous practices and are only gradually acknowledging their value. Moreover, government programmes often result in the destruction of the forests, creating a dilemma on how to protect the environment and the people in it after the resources have already been despoiled.
Reichel and Duhaylungsod presented papers in the session on natural resource management. They subscribe to the argument that local practices are environmentally benign. They also provide evidence that the division into disciplines such as agriculture and forestry is a Western one. In both the Laguna uplands of the Philippines and the Amazon, shifting cultivation is practised, although it is of minor importance in mainly agricultural Laguna. Shifting cultivation is a livelihood strategy that integrates agriculture and forest management, and farmers practising it are both agriculturalists and foresters.
The session on aquaculture contained three papers. Adimihardja describes the rice-fish culture of a reclusive group in West Java, Indonesia. Again, the 'interdisciplinarity' of IK is obvious. The paper by Siar et al. focuses on IK of fishing in a Philippine island. Palomares and Pauly introduce FISHBASE, a relational database suitable for integrating information on IK of fish. Participants pointed out that research on IK so far has centred on land environments. Without accelerated efforts, IK on aquatic resources may disappear before it is recorded.
The session on human health emphasized the cultural embeddedness of IK. Abaya's case study of a woman's sickness and death highlights the different approaches of indigenous and Western medical systems to disease and treatment. It also presents the dilemma of patients who go back and forth between the two systems. The papers by Gonzaga(on a family planning campaign) and by Segismundo (about village health care) show how development efforts can build upon local knowledge (see also below).
In the papers on veterinary medicine and livestock management, technical aspects prevail. Ghimire describes types and practitioners of traditional animal healthcare in Nepal. Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle review worldwide research on ethnoveterinary medicine and illustrate how research results can be translated into development. Bhuktan et al. detail livestock management and healthcare by small farmers in Nepal.
Communication and organizations are two important but often overlooked aspects of IK. Mundy and Compton's paper describes how indigenous and modern forms of communication interact with the corresponding types of knowledge. In his paper about the interface between IK and NGOs, Martinez explains that community organizing in the Philippines has often worked through indigenous organizations.
IK and
Sustainable Development
Four of the symposium papers focus on the role and potential
of IK for sustainable development. Titilola provides a general
review and discusses specifically the situation in Nigeria.
The other three papers approach this topic from different
angles. Hyndman
summarizes the debate on a biodiversity conservation
strategy. He concludes that IK has much to offer for
biological and cultural diversity and resource management. He
points out that indigenous people are an integral part of the
ecosystem they manage. Removing them can harm the environment
they live in. Thus, the best guarantee for the survival of
nature is the survival of indigenous peoples.
Atte sees IK as an important tool for the participation of local people in development. Participatory approaches allow people to define their needs from their perspective. Atte emphasizes that development has to start with and build on what people know. Only then will it result in self-reliance rather than dependency and be sustainable.
Obomsawin points out that development following the Western model has often destroyed valuable local knowledge and culture. He questions whether capital-driven technologies, though regarded as superior, can meet the long-term needs of people. Genuine development has to be people-centred and enable people to take charge of their own lives. IK can form the base for such a development strategy.
Both Atte's and Obomsawin's papers highlight the fact that recognition of IK adds to the self-esteem and empowerment of local people. It thus provides a basis for self-determination and sustainability.
Methodologies
Discussions of methodologies
dealt with different phases and aspects of the research
and application of IK. Recording received
most attention. IK is distributed unevenly in communities: all
share core knowledge, guilds keep trade knowledge, and only a
few hold specialized knowledge. The knowledge structure and
social structure are thus intertwined.
Some participants saw rapid appraisal methods as unsuitable for retrieving IK--though not all agreed with this view. The papers by Abaya and by Gupta and Patel both point out that current methodologies to study IK have ignored the cultural context-- though the two papers suggest different solutions. Abaya appeals for more structural linguistic research, while Gupta and Patel send students into villages where they learn about innovations from farmers. Slikkerveer outlines the 'ethnosystems approach', an approach combining participants' viewpoints, ethnology, and a historical perspective. It includes analyses of the local language, technical skills, local decision-making systems and natural resource management.
Participants repeatedly emphasized the need for a manual (or several manuals) on how to record and document IK. This urgency is seen clearly in the recommendations, some of which are devoted to manual production.
The methodology introduced by Quiroz could be seen as a combination of recording and training. An in- service training programme for agricultural extensionists in Venezuela integrated theoretical and practical lessons on how to record information on IK under village conditions. During the discussion, Quiroz said this approach was promising but that it was still in its initial stages; further experience was needed before specific recommendations could be made.
The symposium recommendations spell out various other training needs.
Storage of indigenous knowledge was the subject of much discussion. Participants agreed that databases might be a suitable storage method, but disagreed on whether these should be primarily for scientific use or designed for access by local peoples. Hardison introduced the International Conservation Software (ICONS), a deliberately simple relational database designed to help local people to store and manage their own environmental data. The argument that computer technology is too advanced for villages was countered with the observation that some villages already manage their own data in this way.
FISHBASE, the database described by Palomares and Pauly, can include indigenous aquatic knowledge and is oriented towards the scientific user. Participants expressed interest in this type of service and suggested additional topics that might be covered by new databases, such as ethnoveterinary medicine. The IK network should ensure the wide dissemination of news about such databases and may be able to suggest standards for developing them.
The validation and selection of IK was addressed primarily in the discussions on medical and veterinary IK. The danger of promoting dangerous practices along with beneficial ones was recognized. One participant pointed out that Western science may not be able to appreciate the value of practices that appear dangerous or superstitious to Western eyes. But another felt unable to recommend such practices with any confidence. There is a clear need for testing and validation of such knowledge, and the recommendations call for the development of criteria for evaluating IK in general. But validation of IK was neglected in discussions on topics other than health.
Application of IK
Information on IK can be useful for development in at least
two ways: (1) it can facilitate the design and implementation
of appropriate programmes; and (2) it can be treated as a
technology and be introduced in surrounding areas or even
transferred to other regions. A third way was mentioned
earlier: IK can be a basis for self-sufficiency and self-
determination.
Facilitating Development Basing projects on an understanding of IK enhances the likelihood of avoiding costly mistakes and promoting appropriate technologies. Although many papers emphasize this aspect, it became especially clear in the presentations on human and animal health. Gonzaga's description of family-planning campaigns conducted in Asia and Africa implied that the same illustration can mean different things in different countries. Illustrations have to be carefully selected if the audience is to understand the message. Segismundo argues that rural health programmes have to be culturally appropriate to be used by the local population. Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle cite the example of Samburu herders in Kenya. A paraveterinary training programme found out that these herders had a high level of ethnoveterinary IK and were able to diagnose certain diseases. The programme therefore did not waste valuable time by teaching disease diagnosis but concentrated on treatments and other issues.
The role of IK as facilitator, however, is not confined to medicine. Fujisaka et al. make it clear that farmers' ideas of useful crops can differ widely from those of scientists. As a result, farmers may not adopt new crops or varieties that do not meet their own standards.
IK as a Technology Information on IK finds its expression in practices, equipment, materials, plant species and animal breeds. These can be introduced to farmers and livestock raisers in the same way as are technologies developed through formal research. Examples mentioned during the symposium include food plants in Kenya (Kabuye) local animal breeds (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle), and a compost-making method in Thailand (Wongsamun).
The transfer of IK technologies does not necessarily mean applying IK in its pure form. On the contrary, many participants supported a blend of indigenous and Western technologies and stressed the complementarity of the two knowledge systems. The conservation of genetic plant resources, for example, can benefit from local farmers' inputs. Farmers and scientists have very different ways of viewing their surroundings. For instance, indigenous soil classifications may reflect soil characteristics not included in standard Western descriptions. Local classifications tend to distinguish characteristics of local importance, such as slight differences in susceptibility to flooding, and ignore features not of importance in cultivation.
Prain differentiates three ways farmers can help with germplasm conservation programmes: (1) as consultants, (2) as evaluators who receive new genetic material, evaluate it, pass information on to researchers, and disseminate good material among the local population, and (3) as research curators of in situ collections.
The possibilities of blending indigenous with Western know-how and technologies are many. Ulluwishewa suggests applying local pesticides with Western equipment to improve the distribution of the pesticide. Another, now common, example is cross-breeding local with exotic breeds to combine the hardiness and disease resistance of the local breed with the better performance of the exotic breeds (Mathias-Mundy and McCorkle). Mundy and Compton view indigenous communication channels as useful means to introduce and promote technologies. Drama and puppet plays have already been successfully used in family-planning campaigns, while apprenticeships, other forms of indigenous education, and traditional organizations have not yet been tapped.
Intellectual Property Rights
An important theme running through the symposium and
coming up in most sessions was the issue of access to IK and
intellectual property rights. This is most closely related to
the political advocate's position as outlined above in 'Background to the International
Symposium ..' This theme appeared in several guises:
The IK Network
At the time of the symposium, the global IK network consisted
of three global, two regional and five national centres. The
'Action Plan for the
Global IK Network' lists their names and areas of focus.
For their addresses see Addresses IK resource
centres. The network continues to grow; shortly after the
symposium, a national IK centre was founded in Sri Lanka at
the initiative of symposium participant Ulluwishewa.
The network has a broad range of goals, including coordination, joint research, information exchange, documentation and publication, training, the identification of funding sources, and the promotion of participation by indigenous peoples. The action plan specifies the division of responsibilities among the network members.
Representatives of several centres outlined their activities during the symposium. At the global level, Von Liebenstein et al. focused on the then newly established Centre for International Research and Advisory Networks (CIRAN), with the major tasks of distributing information and networking among the IK centres. More specifically, CIRAN's responsibilities include publishing a newsletter titled Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor and compiling a directory of individuals and institutions involved in IK.
The main responsibilities of the Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD) are documenting IK and developing training materials. The Leiden Ethnosystems and Development Programme (LEAD) will support publications, hold conferences, and conduct joint ventures. Both Slikkerveer and Kabuye mentioned an example of such a venture: a joint project on indigenous food plants conducted by LEAD and the Kenyan IK Centre (KENRIK).
Representatives from regional centres in Asia and Africa, and national centres in Kenya, Indonesia, Mexico and the Philippines, attended the symposium. Several described their centres.
Macías-López explained an innovative activity by the Mexican centre. This is an annual exhibition where small farmers display their corn and bean varieties to extension workers and researchers.
The Philippine centre differs from the other national centres in its decentralization. According to Serrano et al., it consists of a directorate, housed at the Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), and eight national sectoral coordinators, located at various institutions throughout the country. The sectors are agriculture, fisheries, environment and natural resource management, human health, animal health, non-agricultural technologies, learning systems, and local organizations. This approach is aimed at guaranteeing a broad base of support for a country's IK-related activities.
Inglis discussed the International Program for Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK). As its name indicates, this programme of UNESCO/Canada Man and Biosphere Program deals specifically with ecological IK. It seeks to achieve its goals in close partnership with indigenous peoples.
Outlook
Indigenous knowledge covers all aspects of life and provides a
rich resource for sustainable development. This is not to
romanticize IK. It should be viewed critically. Some IK
practices are less efficient than modern technologies.
Practices originally benign under conditions of low population
and limited contact with the outside may no longer be
appropriate. But still, important lessons can be distilled
from IK--even as it changes. The challenge will be in blending
the culturally appropriate and sustainable aspects of IK with
the efficiency and productivity of introduced technologies.
The problems of development are too large, too complex, for governments and outsiders alone. If development is to take place, and if it to be sustainable, it must rest on the enterprise and initiative of millions of people to generate change based on their own values and experiences.
IK has much to add to the repertoire of development options. Indigenous technologies can be promoted. An understanding of IK can help determine the appropriateness of interventions. And IK can be a basis for encouraging local people to foster their own locally-driven development.
It is up to policy-makers and donors to decide whether the 'capitalist' exploitation of IK--which maximizes gains for the industrial world but limits benefits for the knowledge originators--will prevail. Other approaches, such as those espoused by the 'facilitator' and the 'development agent', offer the prospect of more equitable and sustainable development.
However, as the number and range of recommendations show, much
needs to be done to tap this valuable resource. The symposium
at IIRR was important in that it prepared the ground. The
establishment of the national IK centre in Sri Lanka was a
promising first step. It is now up to all involved in IK
research and development--local people as well as scientists
and development professionals--to collaborate and turn the
recommendations of this symposium into action for the
betterment of people.