In developing countries existing research
systems are not always able to generate
the technologies needed
to solve the problems of minority farmers, due to constraints
on manpower and funds. Such farmers are
forced to develop their own technologies to suit their
particular conditions. Up to now, the problem of
farming on theri land has not received much attention
from researchers in India. Moreover,
farming to these farmers is an occupation which has been
passed down from one generation to the next,
and it would be useful to gain a better understanding of the
indigenous practices of these farmers.
Soil is the basic resource for agricultural production, and soil degradation one of the limiting factors for sustainable agriculture. According to Malhotra and Sharma (1988), India has 175 million hectares of degraded land, constituting 53% of the total surface area of the country. Of these 175 million hectares, 12.9 million consist of wind-eroded land covered with shifting sand dunes. This sandy soil is very poor, from the point of view of both fertility and moisture-retention. Due to soil erosion, scanty rainfall, and a lack of irrigation facilities, the farmers of Chidambaranar district in Tamil Nadu State have been unable to reap the benefits of the green revolution.
In Tamil Nadu wind-eroded soils are found along the coastal belt of the Bay of Bengal, in the taluks of Tuticorin, Srivaikundam, Tiruchendur, Sattankulam and Radhapuram, in Chidambaranar district. This soil, commonly known as theri soil, is one of a range of problematic soils in Tamil Nadu, including saline, alkaline, acidic and coastal sandy soils.
Theri soil, which is formed by wind erosion, is red to dark red in colour, sandy in texture, single-grain in structure, wet, non-sticky, non-plastic, non-calcareous and neutral in reaction (Subbaraj, 1992). The high-velocity wind emerging from the western ghat hill ranges passes through the study area to the Gulf of Mannar in the Bay of Bengal in the east of the country. In the process, the wind hits the land area, lifting soil particles to some height and transporting them as far away as 20 kilometres, depending on the wind velocity. The soil particles are deposited elsewhere, forming sand dunes. This soil covers an area of about 11,000 hectares, affecting 39 different villages.
Due to a shortage of funds and manpower, the State's existing research systems were unable to assist the farmers of this area. The research priorities were food grains, commercial crops and dry farming. The number of farmers living in the theri areas is limited, and the majority of the country's farmers are not affected by these problems. Therefore, agricultural research systems have given very little attention to the problems of theri farmers.
Swift (1979) states that richer individuals are likely to innovate more collectively. Poor people are forced to innovate by their poverty. This is certainly true in the case of theri farmers. Since the existing agricultural research system did not generate technologies for them, these problem-soil farmers were forced to innovate, devising new methods of soil reclamation, crop selection and irrigation.
There is very limited information about the socioeconomic conditions of the theri farmers, and a study was set up to fill this gap. During the visits, it was clear that farming was an occupation that had been handed down from generation to generation, and that these local farmers were making use of several different forms of ITK. It was decided that the documentation of existing ITK in this area would be made available to all those concerned. The study was conducted in Sivapur in 1993. Data were collected through group interviews, using PRA methods.
Identification of suitable crop species
The indigenous crops were drought-resistant tree species,
including palmyra (Borassus
flabellifer), odai (Acacia planifrons), tamarind
(Tamarindus indica)
and
neem (Azadirachia indica). In the past these trees
were commonly found on public and
private
lands; today they have largely been replaced by other crops,
although they are still found on unreclaimed
land. These trees are better suited to theri
conditions, but are less profitable.
Before the introduction of wells around 1960, water was scarce between April and September, and farmers preferred drought-tolerant varieties. Without help from any research system, the farmers tried out a wide variety of crop species on their farms, in order to identify crops which are suitable for their area and also reasonably profitable. Most small farmers currently grow rice (Orisa sativa) and groundnut (Arachis hypogea). Those with large and medium-sized farms prefer coconut (Cocus musifera), drumstick (Moringa oleifera), banana (Musa sapiantium), as well as rice (Orisa sativa) under irrigated conditions and cashew (Anacardium occidentale) when no irrigation is available.
Soil reclamation
Since theri soil is very coarse, with low
water-retention qualities, certain reclamation
measures are necessary. If these measures are to be more
widely adopted, they must be based on the
available local resources and be cost-effective.
Farmers have already tried various reclamation measures, such as the application of greenleaves and 'concrete cultivation'. However, it was difficult to find a sufficiently large local supply of greenleaves, and concrete cultivation was not a success. According to this method, the top soil is removed to a certain depth, depending on the root system of the crop the farmer wants to grow, a layer of cement mortar is poured on and the top soil replaced. The idea is to prevent water loss through percolation. This method is costly and beyond the means of small farmers, who are in the majority.
Farmers have themselves developed a better method of soil improvement, which involves periodical applications of tank silt. Some 20 lorryloads of tank silt (about 200 tonnes) are applied per acre, at a cost of Rs. 200 to Rs. 300 per lorryload, depending on the distance between the tanks and the field in question. This is followed by five lorryloads per year for the next few years. The improved soil is suitable for many crops, and the method of reclamation is standardized, as the resources--i.e., tank silt--were available locally. The silt is transported to Sivapur village from Thangaikulam tank at Kadachapuram village, about 12 km away. According to the farmers, this is the cheapest and best method, and it is superior to the practices recommended for sandy soils by the agricultural department.
Borehole in open wells
Some 40 years ago, the water table in the open wells was about
15 feet. During the northeast monsoon
season, water used to flow from theri springs and run
off through village roads and lanes.
This situation changed around 1965, when there was a decline
in rainfall, and the water table began to
decrease. In 1965 water was available only at a depth of about
25 feet, and today the water table is at 60
feet. When the farmers saw that the water level was continuing
to go down, they made vertical and lateral
bore holes in the open wells. In this way, they were able to
augment the water supply without deepening
the open wells, which would have involved major expenditures.
Irrigation system
When land is fragmented, due to the fact that farmers own land
in different places throughout the village,
well water is often not available for all the different pieces
of land. To remedy this situation, the farmers
have found a way to transport the water available in one place
to another piece of land by means of
specially designed concrete pipes. The farmers use broken
stones and cement to ensure that the pipes can
withstand high stress, particularly that cause by the
penetration of the roots of local trees. The cost of
material and labour ranged from Rs. 50 to Rs. 100 per metre,
depending upon the diameter of the pipes.
They are laid by farmers and farm labourers, usually at a
depth of 3 to 4 feet. These pipes cross public
roads and, by mutual agreement, the holdings of other farmers
as well.
In the fields, lime mortar, known locally as Sunnambu Santhu, is used to plaster earthen channels, low-cost temporary structures designed to prevent water loss due to seepage. When a field is to be prepared for other crops, laterals are laid in the soil. These can be used as required at a low cost.
Techniques in crop cultivation
Farmers have made a number of adaptations to crop selection
and agricultural methods to make them
more suitable for their environment.
Application of farm yard manure: All the farmers apply FYM (the decayed dung of cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats and other organic farm waste material) to the soil in order to improve its structure and fertility.
Coconut: Normally the agricultural department recommends the planting of one-year-old coconut seedlings. However, farmers in this area prefer seedlings less than six months old, with 2 leaves. These young seedlings are not damaged by wind or drought, and draw nourishment from the nut for at least another six months from the time of planting; during this period they become established in the field. At planting time, the pits are dug and filled with decomposed soil, twigs and leaves from the odai tree. A 10% dust of benzene hexachloride (BHC) is applied, to prevent termite attacks. Farmers also plant two banana suckers next to each coconut seedling, to provide shade and protect it from the wind. Bananas are themselves a profitable intercrop in coconut fields.
Drumstick: Farmers have screened various varieties of drumstick and found the Jafna or Yalpanam Murungai variety to be best suited to their conditions. This variety is widely grown and sells well in the big cities and in the Gulf states, providing farmers with a reasonable return on their investment. Stem cuttings of 2 1/2 to 3 feet are preferred for planting, which takes place during the rainy season.
Though pruning is not recommended by the agricultural department, most farmers prune to a height of 5 feet every two years, at the beginning of the northeast monsoon (September-October). Some farmers even prune every year. Drumstick is also cultivated as an intercrop in coconut gardens during the first five years. Farmyard manure and 17:17:17 complex fertilizers are applied three times a year. Diammoniam phosphate (DAP) complex and various potash mixtures are also applied, on the basis of the farmers' own experience.
Paddy: Paddy requires daily irrigation, and the farmers generally use higher quantities of fertilizer than recommended. The local Samba variety, which is a red rice, is preferred. TKM 9, developed 15 years ago by the Thirurkuppam Rice Research Station, is currently being cultivated. This is an improved red rice variety, which offers a high yield, a short growing season (110 days) and tolerance to pests and disease.
Conclusion
The experiences of Sivapur village demonstrate that when
farmers are under pressure, they will develop
new technologies themselves. These villagers have screened
suitable crop species, evolved soil
reclamation measures, devised indigenous irrigation systems,
and made abundant use of FYM. They have
also generated cultivation practices suitable to the areas
most under pressure, and these technologies have
proved their worth.
The information provided by the study will be useful to all those farmers who have to cope with this same type of transported sandy soil. Researchers can also make use of this ITK in a modified form better suited to their areas.
Prof. dr M. Manoharan
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Agricultural College and Research Institute
Department of Agricultural Extension
Madurai 625104
India
Prof. dr S. Kombairaju
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Agricultural College and Research Institute
Killikulam 627252
Tamil Nadu
India
References
Malhotra, P.P. and K.K. Sharma (1988) 'Need for defining
wastelands for afforestation purposes', in
Wasteland development for fuel wood and fodder
production. Forest Research Institute:
Dehradun (India).
Subbaraj, D. (1992) Characterization and improvement of theri lands. Unpublished thesis. Killikulam: AC&RI.
Swift, J. (1979) 'Notes on traditional knowledge, modern knowledge, and rural development', IDS Bulletin 10 (2):41-43.