Methodology for collecting and sharing indigenous knowledge: a case study

Rapid changes in the way of life of local communities and the consequent loss of indigenous knowledge, coupled with the increasing awareness that indigenous knowledge can play an important role in enhancing development, have led development workers in both governmental and non-governmental organizations to collect indigenous knowledge. The success of such an undertaking lies in the manner in which the information is collected, the relations established during this process, and the way the collection process is tailored to fit in with the development priorities of the community in question. This article**1 discusses a number of methods used to collect ethnobotanical information and ways of translating this information into development projects that benefit the communities who supplied the knowledge.

Collecting ethnobotanical information
Before ethnobotanical information is collected one should already have:

• defined the goals and objectives;
  
• set out a general area of operation where information is to be collected and community projects implemented;
  
• formulated questions for use during the study (It should be clear how the data are to be collated and analyzed: qualitatively, quantatively, or both.);
  
• established who to talk to (i.e., the most resourceful individuals in the community), where such people are to be found, and how and when to meet them;
  
• developed the right relations with all key players in the project (such as administrators, traditional leaders, opinion leaders) by informing and sensitizing them;
  
• formulated a plan of action, mobilized the necessary resources and put the required personnel and equipment in place.

Methods of collecting ethnobotanical information
There are basically three methods of collecting ethnobotanical information: interviews, observations and guided field walks. Many field workers find that in order to obtain accurate and detailed information, it is best to combine the three methods.

Interviews are a suitable method for both groups and individuals. They may be quite informal (in market places or on roads) or more formal (during community workshops and meetings, or pre-arranged household visits).

Before conducting the interview, the interviewee(s) must be prepared psychologically. They should not see the interviewer as a stranger but as a friend. Where possible, it should be made clear to them how the information is going to be used and how they will benefit from the whole exercise. It is important to know beforehand what to ask and how to ask it. The questions may be presented in the form of an itemized list or a 'not too long' questionnaire. Notebooks or recorders should only be in evidence in situations where this does not scare people off or make them suspicious. Even in such circumstances, a bit of diplomacy may persuade people to allow you to record the information.

It is also important to avoid inconveniencing people, especially when they are busy with household chores that are urgent or require close attention. The questions should be clear and to the point. The interviewer should adopt the attitude of a student, allowing the person providing the information to be the teacher. One must be sensitive to any sign of fatigue, flagging interest, uneasiness, etc., on the part of the interviewee. If the interviewee tends to wander from the subject, let him/her do so; this breaks the monotony of the questionnaire and opens new areas for discussion. Even information that initially seems trivial may acquire significance in the final analysis.

The answers given will depend on the questions asked. One should keep in mind that questions produce more information when they are broken up into various components. The following examples will illustrate this.
Example 1:
Which plants are used for the treatment of livestock diseases?
vs.
Which plants are used for the treatment of cattle, sheep, camels, goats, donkeys, poultry, etc.?
Example 2:
Which plants do you use for food?
vs.
Which plants do you use as fruits, vegetables, ...?
Both questions will produce answers, but the more specific questions will in the long run provide more information than the general ones.

The second method used is observation. Here the researcher walks around, visiting sites where one may expect to see plants in use or on display, such as in homes and market places. Anything that may be relevant to the subject being investigated is noted, and where necessary questions are asked to obtain further clarification. Wherever possible, the researcher should take along someone from the area, even a child, who can provide the necessary explanations. While time-consuming, this method is very effective; it is almost error-proof and allows the extent of reported use to be quantified. Less important details can also be noted.

The two previous methods--observation and interviews--are combined in the guided field walk. This involves a tour through the wilderness by the interviewer and the interviewee. As soon as the interviewee sees a particular plant, he/she will be prompted to explain how it is used. This method is very effective and often brings to light things which do not normally emerge from the other two methods. It also enables the researcher to note other important points, such as growing site, habitat and related species. This method is conducted along the lines of a participatory rural appraisal (PRA).

There are, however, several disadvantages attached to this method as it is:

• tiring, especially for older people, who tend to be most knowledgable;
  
• time-consuming;
  
• only effective in species-rich areas and places with considerable variations in habitat.

• Ranking. This can be done in various ways, such as raising hands or placing representative objects on a board or on the ground. The qualities ranked are such things as taste, potency, marketability and rarity.
  
• Community resource maps. Such maps are usually drawn by the group on the ground, using available material. They provide first-hand impressions of the village and the distribution of resources. The accuracy of these maps can be improved by making use of conventional maps as well.
  
• Numbers and measurements. It is useful to take measurements and record quantities by means of conventional techniques.

The group should be neither too small nor too large. Too small a group (less than 5, say) may not provide the results expected of a group. Too large a group (over about 40) tends to become unmanageable, and many of the participants do not get an opportunity to air their views within the available time.

In most communities the output of a group will be influenced by the representation of the various sex and age segments. In mixed groups, men will tend to dominate the talks. Women generally feel most free among other women, and in some communities women will not even speak in the presence of men. Younger women usually feel free only when there are no men at all present, while in the absence of women, men are often impatient and argumentative. In addition, women and men are knowledgeable in different fields. Among certain pastoral groups, for example, men are good in ethnoveterinary plants while women know more about food plants, especially vegetables and medicinal plants used to treat childhood diseases.

The very young and the very old will usually be overshadowed by the middle-aged group. The young will normally feel inexperienced in the presence of the old. In areas with more than one ethnic group, there will be disparities in the nature of the information put forward by each group.

The psychological state of the group will be influenced by various factors. The time which is available will determine whether the group is in the right frame of mind to provide information. The time of day is also important, as groups tend to become somewhat uneasy as evening approaches. The distance to be travelled and the activities waiting at home are also of influence. As a rule, women have to go home earlier, as they have more responsibilities. Children, too, have chores to do at home and cannot be kept too long.

Group interviews vs. individual interviews
Group interviews have both advantages and disadvantages in comparison with individual interviews. The following advantages can be distinguished. First, the rate of information generation is higher, especially where listing or clarification is required. The method is particularly useful when time is limited, as is usually the case in the field. Second, as a rule, the information is more correct, as it is discussed and debated by the more knowledgeable members of the group. If there is uncertainty about any of the information, this will be made clear by one or more members of the group. Third, by the end of the exercise the more knowledgeable members will have been identified and an individual follow-up can then take place. Finally, the less knowledgeable participants learn from the more knowledgeable ones.

The disadvantages are the following. Someone who is more vocal may 'hijack' the discussion, eclipsing the contributions of the rest. If that person enjoys high esteem in the community, as an administrator, say, or a politician, then the others will not dare to challenge him, and this situation may go undetected and uncorrected. Second, some quite knowledgeable individuals, especially the elderly and those who are young or shy, may not participate fully, so that some of the desired information is withheld. In many communities women say little or nothing in the presence of men; this is the case, for instance, among the Masai. Third, the method is in general inappropriate for information requiring statistical treatment.

Methods of sharing ethnobotanical information
Before undertaking to collect information pertaining to indigenous knowledge, the researcher should have some idea of how the community in question might benefit from the exercise. Perhaps the information can be shared with the community or used for future development projects in the area. The ethnobiological information collected is usually in the field of ethnomedicine, ethnoveterinary medicine, indigenous agricultural systems, and general plant uses such as food, fibre, construction, fodder medicine and dye.

Indigenous knowledge can be used in the following ways:

• to identify resources which can be used for the benefit of the community;
  
• to provide information of importance for commerce or the advancement of science (alternative technology);
  
• to offer solutions to common problems within the community.

In the last few years there has been renewed worldwide interest in the use of indigenous knowledge in many different sectors. However, it is important to see that the flow information is not a one-way affair as this is a form of exploitation. Rather the information should flow from the community to the collector and back again.

There are several ways in which the community can benefit from collecting indigenous knowledge, including the following:

• Indigenous knowledge can be made available to the less knowledgeable within the community, especially the young, by means of the printed word and other learning materials.
  
• Individual members can use research, the literature, and even their own experience to enhance indigenous knowledge, which they then pass on to the community.
  
• Innovative participatory research can be used to modify indigenous knowledge, in order to improve utilization.
  
• Specific problems can be identified, together with appropriate interventions, giving rise to projects and activities beneficial to the community.

• marketing;
  
• processing for marketing or consumption;
  
• planting, for example, the establishment of nurseries for food or medicinal plants, kitchen gardens, and agroforestry projects;
  
• improving the availability and distribution of plant resources;
  
• initiating environmental education projects.

• establishment of kitchen gardens;
  
• collection and documentation of indigenous knowledge;
  
• conservation of plant species and their habitats, and related indigenous knowledge;
  
• adult classes (reading, learning about the benefits of indigenous food plants, and conservation);
  
• agroforestry, especially the planting of multipurpose trees or shrubs, which have food value in addition to such benefits as shade and medicinal qualities.

Patrick M. Maundu
KENRIK
National Museums of Kenya
P.O. Box 40658
Nairobi
Kenya
Tel: +254-2-742131/4
Fax: +254-2-741424
E-mail: biodive@tt.gn.apc.org

Endnotes
**1 The experience shared here was gained by the writer during a four-year period of research and extension work in Kenya, under the auspices of the Indigenous Food Plants Programme.

**2 The primary objective of the Indigenous Food Plants Programme was to promote the utilization of neglected indigenous food plants, to achieve better nutrition, especially among the rural and urban poor, and to conserve food plant species and the related indigenous knowledge. This was achieved through botanical and nutritional research, followed by the dissemination of the relevant information to communities living in nine different districts in Kenya.