Research


Traditional wisdom associated with yam production in Nigeria If Nigeria is to retain its leading position among yam-producing nations, it is very important that indigenous knowledge regarding the cultivation of yams be put to good use. To this end, research on this subject was conducted in Northern Nigeria in 1982, in Southwest Nigeria in 1984-1985, and in Southeast Nigeria in 1995. The main objectives of the study were to understand the farmers' perception of yams and to document and draw attention to indigenous technologies of yam production in Nigeria. The research methods used were rural appraisal techniques and structured questionnaires. Research showed that yam is considered 'a man' s crop'. Men cultivate the species rotundata, alata, and cayenensis. Traditional yam farmers do not regard Dioscorea bulbifera and Dioscorea dumetorum as yams. These two species are instead grouped with coco-yam and considered 'a woman's crop'. Methods of farming and soil management varied between and within the yam zones. In the Southeast, farmers were developing new strains of cultivated food yams from wild yam species obtained in the forests. Differences between storage methods in the North, South and Southwest were based on variation in ecology and culture. The most common places to store yams were in the shade, in barns, and underground, respectively. Another storage method involved smoking freshly harvested yam tubers by hanging them on the rafters or ceilings of people's houses, above the place where food is cooked over a wood fire. The yams can then be stored for 3 or 4 months without any problem of rotting. This method was practised at Ogbaru, Omor and Anam in the riverine areas of the Southeast. For more information, contact: Godwin O. Chukwu, National Root Crops Research Institute, Umudike, PMB 7006, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria. Research 370 words Indigenous botanical knowledge of the Dai in China The Dai people live mainly in Southern Yunnan (China) and share common origins with the Thai people in Thailand and Vietnam, the ethnic Lao of Laos and the Dan in Burma. The Dai have a wealth of indigenous knowledge regarding the use and conservation of natural resources. With environmental and social change, however, this knowledge is being ignored, especially by the younger generation. Growing attention is being given to the need to preserve indigenous knowledge alongside biodiversity. With support from the Ford Foundation, a research project was conducted between June 1993 and June 1996 on the botanical knowledge of the Dai people in Xishuangbanna, Southern China. Components of the project included community participation, documentation, investigation, demonstrations, and education and training. The main focus was on the role of holy hill-forests and the influence of Buddhism on the management of plant diversity. The research objectives were: * to identify the plants in the holy hill-forests and temple gardens and to analyse the significance of indigenous knowledge for the protection of plant diversity; * to educate and train young people of the Dai nationality to apply indigenous knowledge to the management of biodiversity; * to regenerate a holy hill-forest and to develop a temple garden in one village which can serve as a demonstration site. Many villages in Xishuangbanna maintain holy hill-forests, where plants are protected. These, like the Buddhist temple gardens, have played an important role in preserving the diversity of plants characteristic of rainforests in the dry season. In fact, the temple gardens and holy hill-forests function like botanic gardens, and as such have contributed greatly to the introduction and conservation of plant species. The research project has had the following results. Several papers have been published, a video film has been made, more than 300 people have been trained in how to apply indigenous knowledge to the management of natural resources, a degraded holy hill-forest has been rehabilitated, and more than 100 plant species that are important to Buddhism have been identified and planted in the temple garden. For more information, please contact: Liu Hongmao, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanic Garden, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Menglun, Mengla, Yunnan 666303, China. Fax: +86-0691-8715070. Research 502 words Indigenous Ewe concepts of health and disease A pilot study prior to more extensive PhD research in the field of medical anthropology under the title 'Health care in the Volta Region of Ghana: Indigenous concepts of health and disease' has recently been carried out by Silvia Viergever, in conjunction with the LEAD programme of Leiden University. The research was conducted during the last three months of 1996 in the Keta District of the Volta Region, Ghana. In order to assess the dynamics of health beliefs and practices in the area, qualitative research was conducted in the form of semi-structured in-depth interviews with different groups of informants. The interviews with four herbalists in the district focused primarily on collecting and analyzing the names given to common diseases in the local language of the area, Ewe, and on indigenous disease aetiology. In addition to these interviews with herbalists who were directly and intimately involved with the practical process of healing, in-depth interviews were conducted with one sub-chief of the area on several aspects of the specific cultural and religious context of health and disease. Furthermore, the relationships between the orthodox and the traditional medical systems were discussed with a medical doctor at Keta Hospital as well as with the other informants. Although it was a pilot study, the project has already produced a list of diseases prevailing among the Ewe together with their local names and aetiologies. This is supplemented with information on several herbal and spiritual therapies as well as on home remedies as reported by the informants. As a result of the informal and fairly open structure of the interviews, there was ample opportunity to discuss other health-related topics that provide immediate opportunities for further research. More extensive research under the supervision of Dr L.J. Slikkerveer of Leiden University will concentrate on several issues, including: in-depth study of indigenous disease classifications, comprehensive study of herbal and spiritual remedies for the most common diseases, and quantitative research in the form of household surveys to reveal the complex patterns of health care utilization behaviour in the area. Examination of the distinct illness classifications, local aetiologies and the 'healer shopping' behaviour of the Ewe reveals that the Ewe make use of several different health care systems. This pattern has also been seen among similar ethnic groups elsewhere in West Africa, such the Bono in Techiman, as recorded by Warren (1994). In the context of the Keta District, there is strong evidence for the existence of an informal, mutual referral system between the different medical systems. On the other hand, however, both orthodox and traditional practitioners appear to have reservations about the other system. Analysis of the present situation would not only lead to a better insight into transcultural health and illness, but could also provide recommendations for the development of a more integrated health care delivery model. A report on the pilot study in Ghana is in preparation. For more information, please contact: Ms. S. Viergever MA, Ravenhorst 24, 2317AJ Leiden, The Netherlands. Tel: +31-71-5216171. Research 309 words The use of rural appraisal in the study of ethno-veterinary medicine This study, which was conducted for a master's degree in Tropical Animal Production and Health, set out to combine ethno-veterinary medicine and the methodologies of Rural Appraisal. Fieldwork was carried out in 1995 in the village enclaves of Gashaka-Gumpti National Park, Taraba State, Nigeria. Rural Appraisal methods indeed show promise for the study of ethno-veterinary medicine, and certainly merit evaluation and perhaps adoption on a broader scale for further study in this area. A lot of information about local methods for treating animals could be uncovered in a relatively small amount of time. The methods used were based on the continuum of rapid rural appraisal and participatory rural appraisal. Rural Appraisal methods are a relatively recent addition to the portfolio of information-gathering methodologies. They were developed in the 1970s and 1980s in response to growing dissatisfaction with conventional information-gathering methods. Traditionally, information is gathered in the field using formal surveys and questionnaires. These are often time-consuming to prepare, administer and evaluate. They can also be culturally inappropriate in non-literate societies. Rural Appraisal methods aim to be more participative than extractive and to involve local people in the process of information-gathering. These methods aim to engage the informants rather than to have a merely passive encounter with them. Feedback and discussion is sought from both sides. These methods have not yet been developed fully for the purpose of studying ethno-veterinary medicine. Semi-structured interviews have been shown to offer potential for obtaining information. The other Rural Appraisal methods, making maps and matrices, also need to be refined to meet their full potential. In the context of this study, however, their use was limited by the oral nature of the culture in question. Contact: Marina Martin, 121 Coleherne Court, Old Brompton Road, London SW5 0EB, United Kingdom. Tel: +44-171-3706456, Fax: +44-171-2592113. Research 273 words The integration of indigenous ecological knowledge into conservation and the development of ecotourism in Mabira Forest, Uganda Ecotourism is a recent phenomenon in Uganda arising from increased interest in the conservation of natural ecosystems. In order to assess the level of local knowledge regarding the management and conservation of forest resources prior to initiating a community-based ecotourism project, a research project was conducted under the title 'Integration of indigenous ecological knowledge into conservation and the development of ecotourism in Mabira Forest'. In July and August,1994, 72 structured questionnaires were administered in the counties surrounding Mabira Forest: Buikwe, Nakifuma, Ntenjeru and Mukono. The survey showed that the Baganda are the dominant ethnic group in the areas surrounding Mabira Forest. Traditionally, these are small-scale farmers who supplement their diet by hunting wild animals. They also depend heavily on Mabira Forest for supplies of thatching materials, herbal medicines, wild fruit and vegetables, water, clay, building poles, charcoal, firewood and raw materials for handicrafts. The 'sacred' trees also serve their spiritual needs. After the Forest Department involved the local people in their programmes to manage and conserve Mabira Forest, the number of animals increased and the forest became a tourist attraction. Although the current tourist facilities are fragmentary and consist of only one roadside picnic site and another picnic site in the forest reserve, it is important that the villagers be involved in future projects of the Forest Department since expanded ecotourism will have more profound effects on their way of life. Contact: Dr Joseph Obua, Department of Forestry, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Makerere University, PO Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. Tel: +256-41-543238, Fax: +256-41-533574. E-mail: ufric@starcom.co.ug Research 297 words Traditional soil science of the Yoruba in Central South West Nigeria Traditional systems used by Yoruba farmers formerly provided mechanisms for sustaining soil fertility. The study of local knowledge on the subject of soil and its classification is sometimes called 'ethno-pedology'. The aim of recent research has been to study the existing indigenous system of soil classification, to document the limitations of this local classification system, to see how it correlates with modern systems, and to seek areas of harmony between the two for the mutual benefit of both types of system. The region where the Yoruba people live is characterized by naturally fertile forest soils which are used mainly for the cultivation of tree crops such as cocoa, kola, oil palm, citrus fruit and rubber, and arable crops and vegetables. The Yoruba are predominantly farmers, but they also earn money with dyeing, weaving, and wood carving. The indigenous knowledge of the Yoruba is extensive and sophisticated. They have put their knowledge of soils to good use for agricultural and non-agricultural purposes. Basically, the Yoruba have four parameters in their indigenous classification system. The first is colour, on a scale from black, red and brown to grey. The second is texture, which includes structure and moisture condition. The third parameter is based on fertility, and the fourth is inferred from vegetation cover or land use. These parameters are interrelated and overlap each other. The Yoruba used their indigenous soil-classification system for land-use planning. Apart from local complications arising from dialect differences, the classification system is widespread throughout the region. A weak correlation has been found between the local classification system and the modern methods used in agriculture. Contact: Dr Gbade Oyediran, Department of Agronomy, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, P.M.B. 4000, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria. Tel: +234-038-720754. Research 404 words Indigenous knowledge and the in situ conservation of germplasm for crops Wild or traditional relatives of the plant varieties used for modern crops are the basic materials used in plant breeding. In situ conservation is therefore essential for seed production and to preserve the genetic diversity needed for healthy crops. Conservationists and social scientists argue that to preserve biological diversity requires protecting not only biological elements but also the cultures of local people, including their indigenous knowledge. The way that local people use genetic resources will be based on what they know about them, and on their desire to conserve those resources. Indigenous peoples can therefore be seen as ideally suited to be custodians of genetic diversity preserved in situ. A study was conducted in 1993 among Dayak rice farmers in the interior of Borneo (Indonesia)--namely in the village of Apau Ping in East Kalimantan. The study was funded from the Indonesia Programme of the Worldwilde Fund for Nature as part of the Culture and Conservation Project in East Kalimantan's Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve. The study revealed that indigenous agricultural knowledge is only partially shared by the community members engaged in farming. Most farmers knew only about 28% of the rice varieties in the local inventory. Farmers possess different amounts of knowledge as a result of differences between them in terms of the opportunities they have for acquiring knowledge and building on it, as well as in terms of motivation. Two years earlier another researcher had documented 10 of the 38 rice varieties present in the village. Three of the varieties she had found were no longer present in 1993. But local people were planting 20 different rice varieties that had been introduced in the meantime. Not all of these were new varieties, but the number was nevertheless quite high for a village with only 45 households. It gave a rough idea of the extent to which varieties are constantly changing in Apau Ping. It seems that old varieties are continually replaced by new ones that farmers bring in from outside the village. These and other findings tend to support the idea that farmers are skilled enough at choosing and propagating rice varieties that they can be trusted to be the custodians of genetic resources that are conserved in situ through various crop-related programmes. Contact: Ms Indah Setyawati, Jl. Pela no 3, Gandaria Utara, PO Box 7928 JKSKM, Jakarta Selatan 12079, Indonesia. Fax: +62-21-739-5907. Research 380 words A case study in the Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve in China Market economics transforms traditional patterns of using land and natural resources, which are valuable for sustainable development and the conservation of biodiversity. In the Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve in China, research was done on the transformations that have taken place in traditional settlement patterns, village organization, the use of Holy Hills, dry-land agriculture, paddy-rice agriculture, hunting and fishing, and collection in forests. The research was conducted in 1995 and funded by IDRC (Canada). Three organizations in China were involved: the Chinese National MAB Committee, the Institute of Ecology and Geobotany at Yunnan University, and the Nature Reserve Bureau of Xishuangbanna Autonomous Prefecture. Prior to the late 1960s, there were four villages in the forests of the study area. Three Bulang villages occupied the hilltops (above 1300 m.), where subsistence depended on slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. A Dai village occupied the Nankenhe valley, where people lived from planting paddy rice and fishing. Each of the villages had its own territory bordered by mountain ridges, saddles, or streams. Different adaptations to the environment resulted in different settlement patterns. The settlement patterns have changed considerably since the 1960s. Villages moved from the mountains to the valleys, and increased remarkably in number. The new settlement pattern has made contact with the outside world easier. This has led to the adoption of more modern techniques, which in turn altered some of the traditional elements of village life. Market economics has had varying effects on Holy Hills and burial areas, which had been one way of using land and natural resources. Some villagers now cut timber in Holy Hills--a sign that they no longer respect the traditional function of these hills. To meet market demand, the Bulang and Dai people have planted a larger variety of crops. The Bulang tend to harvest less than the Dai, however, who had learned the techniques of intensive cultivation earlier. The Dai can get larger yields from the same crop grown over the same area of land. Other changes have occurred in the patterns of hunting, fishing and collecting in forests. For a more detailed report on the research, please contact: Dr Wu Zhaolu, Institute of Ecology and Geobotany, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China. Tel: +86-871-5151311/33785, Fax: +86-871-5147700. E-mail: zlwu@ynu.edu.cn Research 298 words Women and the indigenous management of water resources in Yunnan After gaining independence, many third world countries were eager to follow the Western example of industrialization and technological progress. Many canals, dams and reservoirs were built to develop hydraulic power, but these public works destroyed the ecological balance of water catchment areas. Gradually, indigenous knowledge came to be recognized as a valuable resource for sustainable development, an alternative for the conventional model of development. Like many other phenomena, indigenous knowledge has a gender dimension. Women bring different interests and needs to the decision-making process, and they have insights, skills and talents which differ from those of men. China is a large country with an uneven distribution of water resources. Generally speaking, the northern part is very dry and the southern part is quite wet. Yunnan Province lies in the southwest of China. It has abundant water and is famous for both its biodiversity and its cultural diversity. In Yunnan there are 23 major ethnic groups. At the moment, research for a master's degree is being carried out which is examining the indigenous use of water in Dai households, and the irrigation practised by Hani farmers in the Honghe autonomous region. Indigenous knowledge is an important part of the research. Indigenous peoples have strong environmental awareness because of the limitations which natural conditions place on their livelihood. Women's domestic role places them closer to certain natural resources--water, for instance. Four aspects of water-resource management will be explored in the current study: social, historical, economic, and gender-related. These will be investigated using participatory rural appraisal, historical analysis, and anthropological research methods. For more information, please contact: Yang Fang, Mail Box 389, Asian Institute of Technology, PO Box 4, Kong Lung, Pahtumthani 12120, Thailand. Tel: +662-524-5673/5668, Fax: +662-524-6166. E-mail: hsb67192@ait.ac.th

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