Indigenous knowledge and uses of forest plant products for controlling crop pests in Ogun State (Nigeria)
One of the major problems of resource-poor farmers in rural southwestern Nigeria are the pests that attack their crops. The farmers are in no position to afford the western agro-chemicals that are usually recommended for controlling these pests. Research by the Department of Agricultural Extension, of the University of Agriculture, Abeokuta (Nigeria), has shown that some of these farmers are very knowledgeable in the use of forest plant products for crop protection and pest control. Between February 1994 and July 1996, a study was conducted among 150 selected farmers. The aim was to identify indigenous forest plant products used in pest control, and to ascertain their effectiveness. The research method was a combination of participatory rural appraisal (PRA), personal interviews and observations. Samples of plants were identified by botanists and forest scientists. Observations were made of the farmers' methods for preparing and applying the plant products, and of these effects of these methods.

The most interesting findings were the following:

• The fruit of fig trees (Ficus capensis) and the seeds of alligator peppers are partially burnt and then ground together. The mixture is sprinkled on melon seeds before planting in order to prevent insects from attacking the seeds.
• Roots of "legunsoko" (Psorospermum corymbiferum) are ground, mixed with water, and applied to the seeds of most grain crops before planting. This prevents partridges from eating the seeds.
• "Afon" leaves (African bread fruit) (Treculia africana) are ground and the fluid is extracted. This fluid is sprinkled on yam and cassava cuttings before planting. This prevents insects from attacking the cuttings before they can sprout.
• The fresh leaves of "ejirin" (balsam pear) (Momordica charantia) and 'bitter leaf' are ground together. The extract is mixed with water and then sprinkled on yam cuttings (setts) before planting. This prevents pests from attacking the cuttings before they can sprout.

• The leaves of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica) are boiled and allowed to cool. The extract is sprayed on crops to repel moths, hoppers, and the larvae of many insects.
• Extract from fresh tobacco leaves is sprayed on crops to repel insects.
• Garlic is planted among other crops in order to repel insects. (Garlic plants are spaced 1.5 meters apart.)

• Lime juice is mixed with grain (rice or maize), which is then sun-dried before storing. This protects the stored grain against insects and rodents.
• Afon (African bread fruit) fruits are burnt partially for 10 minutes. This produces an odour which repels most insects found on melons, beans, and other fruit and vegetables.
• Palm fronds coated with palm oil are tied to yams in barns in order to repel rodents and other pests.

• Lime juice is mixed with equal parts of palm oil and kerosene, and sprayed on termites in order to kill them.
• "Botuje pupa" (no English name known; closely related to physic nut) (Jatropha gossypifolia), when planted in and around the farm, repels termites.
• Tobacco planted around the farm or poultry coop repels snakes.

When tested, these methods proved to be approximately 65 per cent effective. The forest plants thus used for pest control are naturally available in abundance, and also easy to grow. The technology and resources needed to prepare and apply them are not a problem for the farmers. Already, some rural development programmes in Nigeria are encouraging the use of neem and garlic for crop protection. Further research should be conducted to determine whether these and other plant products might prove effective in other agro-ecological areas of Nigeria. If so, their use could be incorporated into extension packages that benefit a wider group of farmers who are poor in resources.

For more information, contact: Dr Samson O. Apantaku, Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, PMB 2240 Abeokuta, Nigeria.
E-mail: Apantso@unaab.edu.ng

Grewia optiva in Indo-Nepal Himalaya--Its diversity, indigenous knowledge and conservation
The International Plant Genetics Institute, in Rome (Italy), awarded a Vavilov-Frankel Fellowship to Dr Sneh Lata which enabled her to study the ethnobotany, diversity and conservation of the tree Grewia optiva Drumm. ex Burret (Tiliaceae). The research took place between May 1996 and February 1997. The main research questions were:

• What is the natural distribution of Grewia optiva in Indo-Nepal Himalaya?
• Which variations exist in terms of growing habits, leaf morphology, and other characteristics?
• What do the various ethnic groups know about the tree and its uses?
• What importance does the tree have in the daily lives of the various indigenous groups?
• Is the tree threatened by human activities or other factors?
• Which conservation measures are being taken, or could be taken?

Intensive research was undertaken—in libraries, in herbaria and in the field. More than 100 specimens were studied in herbaria at Lucknow, Calcutta, Dehradun and Kathmandu. Fieldwork was done in 15 districts of Nepal (Surkhet, Salyan, Bardiya, Dang, Rolpa, Pyuthan, Parbat, Kaski, Lamjung, Gorkha, Kathmandu, Rasuwa, Nuwakot, Saptri and Sunsari); and in two districts of India (Almora, Nainital).

In the area studied, Grewia optiva occurs at elevations of up to 2000m. In India, the tree is found from Kashmir to Sikkim, generally on the boundaries of cultivated fields. In Nepal, it is found in all hilly regions.

Grewia optiva is a multipurpose, medium-sized tree (7-10 m) with a spreading crown. The researcher recorded trees of 16-17m in height and 160cm in girth. The maximum leaf size observed was 14.3 x 24.5cm, which is larger than the size reported previously. Sometimes the same tree had leaves ranging in size from 5 x 8cm to 13.6 x 20cm.

In India, common local names for Grewia optiva are: "behul", "bhekua", "bhekul", "bhimal", "dhaman", and "pharan". In Nepal, its local names are: "ghatle", "forsa", "fusre", "makakosi", and "syalfusre".

Local people were observed using Grewia optiva in a number of ways:

• Leaves are used for fodder.
• Bark fibre, after treatment, is used for making rope, bags, nets, etc.
• Sticks from which the bark has been removed are good as smokeless fuel.
• Local children relish the tree's fruit.

The plant also provides materials for dye, detergent, agricultural tools, and medicine for human and veterinary use. In India, fresh branches and dried sticks are used for worship during the festival of lights (Diwali). The researcher found two uses of Grewia optiva which have never before been recorded. In Ranikhet (India), people use its wood ash for washing clothes, and in Salyan (Nepal) people use its bark for treating indigestion and gastric problems. All recorded uses of Grewia optiva will be documented in a database.

The tree has economic significance as well. Villagers sell fibre and fibre products in rural markets. Entire trees are also sold; depending on their size, trees fetch between US$ 3 and US$ 4 each. The plant offers good potential for small-scale industry.

The species is under threat as a result of overexploitation and deforestation. Fortunately, however, the tree grows in protected areas such as the Nagarjun Royal Forest. Villagers also appeared conscious of the need to conserve it. They often transplant seedlings from the wild to their kitchen gardens or to the boundaries of their fields.

For more information, contact: Dr Sneh Lata or Dr S.K. Jain, Institute of Ethnobiology, c/o National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 - 001, India.
Tel: +91-522-271 031.
Fax: +91-522-282 849.