Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor, March 1999

Contents IK Monitor (7-1) | IKDM Homepage | Suggestions to: ikdm@nuffic.nl | (c) copyright Nuffic-CIRAN and contributors 1999.

Publications

Arnold, J.E.M. and P.A. Dewees (eds) (1997) Farms, trees and farmers. Responses to agricultural intensification. 292 pp. ISBN 1-85383-484 X. GBP14.95. Earthscan Publications Ltd., 120 Pentonville Road, London N1 9JN, UK.
Tel.: +44-171-278 0433.
Fax: +44-171-278 1142.
E-mail: earthinfo@earthscan.co.uk

Farms, trees and farmers is a collection of articles centered around the issue of why farmers do or do not plant trees. The contributors provide valuable insights, also because they represent a variety of organizations: the Oxford Forestry Institute (J.E.M. Arnold), the World Bank (P.A. Dewees), the East-West Center (M. Dove), the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (D.A. Gilmour), the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (N.S. Jodha), the Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of Administration (N.C. Saxena), the International Food Policy Research Institute (S. Scherr), and the Community Forestry Unit of the FAO (K. Warner).
Farmers have long relied on tree products for food, fuel, and construction materials. Increasing pressures on tree resources, both on-farm and off-farm, have resulted in overuse and degradation. The response of governments and development agencies has been to encourage the planting of trees for the general purpose of poverty alleviation. But many of these efforts have failed, because not enough is understood about why and how farmers decide to grow trees. The book is aimed at filling this gap.
Four case studies deal with trends in the growing of trees among farmers. These describe farmers' increased efforts to plant and manage trees in the hills of Nepal; overexploitation of common lands under the influence of rapid social and economic change in Rajasthan (India); a long history of institutional misdirection by the Forest Department of Pakistan; and increased tree planting as a result of many interrelated factors in eastern Africa.
Four chapters focus on factors influencing farmers' decisions. These examine tree planting in response to new cash markets for tree products in western Kenya; inappropriate responses from outsiders who perceive fuelwood shortages; tree planting, again in response to emerging markets in Sudan, Kenya, and India; and the roles of land and labour availability in tree-planting decisions in Kenya and north India.
In general, it seems that more intensive on-farm tree planting is occurring in regions undergoing agricultural intensification, and that this on-farm intensification has taken place in the more arable and productive areas with relatively higher rainfall.
The book should be of interest to anyone working with indigenous knowledge and development who seeks illustrations of farmers' rational responses to changing conditions. In both Nepal and western Kenya, for example, a decline in forest resources and increased demand for tree products were met by highly adaptive, knowledge-intensive local practices for tree management.
The same book also cites cases where the forestry sector has been shortsighted, misguided, or just plain silly. Tree-planting interventions have failed because forestry officials failed to understand local complexities--i.e., complexities in terms of the different ways that trees meet different and changing household needs, in terms of farmers' reactions to changes in demand and supply, in terms of farmers' actual resources, and in terms of farmers' strategies for managing risk.
Although one author (Gilmour) suggests that the best response to failed projects might be simply to remove the institutional obstacles that stop farmers from doing what they think best, I would be more comfortable if the book and various authors had done more to consider how state forestry departments might be helped first to gain more understanding of farmers' knowledge and practices related to tree management, and then to design appropriate and beneficial programmes of research and development. This last comment is meant as a challenge rather than as criticism, however. The contributors have provided ample and valuable case-study material regarding trends in tree growing among farmers, and have provided a good analysis of the reasons underlying farmers' decisions in a changing and complex world. (Sam Fujisaka, agricultural anthropologist, CIAT--Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia)

Grassroots Voice Volume 1(3), December 1998. 40 pp. ISSN 1560-358X. Annual subscription fee in Bangladesh: BDT200; abroad: USD20. Published by Sukanta Sen on behalf of BARCIK/Integrated Action Research and Development -IARD, 3/7 Block-D, Lalmatia, Dhaka -1207, Bangladesh.
Tel.:+880-2-913 2372.
Email: iard@bdonline.com

Grassroots Voice is published three times a year on behalf of BARCIK, the young and active Bangladesh Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge. Although focused mainly on Bangladesh, Grassroots Voice welcomes contributions from all South Asian countries.
The December 1998 issue features articles from India and Nepal, which--like all of the articles selected for publication-- contain research findings and/or theoretical discussion that could prove useful to native researchers and development workers. The present issue opens with an article by Dr Prem N. Sharma, regional coordinator and chief technical advisor to the Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia Programme in Kathmandu (Nepal), in which he describes recent watershed management initiatives and argues that future programmes of integrated water management should take a more participatory approach. The Indian contribution is by Dr A.K. Bandhyopadhya and G.S. Shah, who have also published in the Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. Their article deals with ethnoveterinary and animal-husbandry practices on the Andaman Islands. One of the Bangladeshi contributions is by Dr Mahfuzul Haquel, chief instructor at the Academy for Planning and Development Nilkhet, in Dhaka, who examines development projects that turned into 'development disasters' mainly because the knowledge and practices of local people were not taken into account. The fourth and last article, entitled 'Freshwater fisheries of Bangladesh: Issues of sustainability', is by Mr Debashish Mazumder, Ms Zobaida Samina, and Tanvirul Islam.
Apart from the articles, Grassroots Voice features news, reviews, conference announcements and reports in an effort to facilitate regional networking among those who share an interest in IK and sustainable development.
The first issue of Volume 2 will be published at the end of March 1999. It will focus on the indigenous knowledge and practices of upland areas, particularly highlighting the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the Himalayan region.

Guendel, Sabine (1997) Participatory innovation development and diffusion: adoption and adaptation of introduced legumes in the traditional slash-and-burn peasant farming system in Yucatan, Mexico. 133 pp. ISBN 3-8236-1292-1. DM30 plus fee for packing and postage. Margraf Verlag, Laudenbacherstr. 9, D-97990 Weikersheim, Germany.
Tel.: +49-7934-30 71.
Fax: +49-7934-81 56.
E-mail: margraf@compuserve.com

Mayan peasants in Yucatan are seeing the productivity of their slash-and-burn (milpa) farming system decline, but they have no alternative sources of income. A system of green manuring using bean plants (Mucuna pruriens and Canavalia ensiformis) has been successfully introduced elsewhere in Central America and would seem suitable also for the Mayan farmers, but few have adopted it. In three case studies, Sabine Guendel explores the reasons for this. In each case an intervening organization used a different strategy to promote the innovation, but all failed. Her methodology was to elicit the farmers' own analysis of the functions and potential roles of cover crops within the milpa system.
A clear picture emerges of how the historical milpa system changed in the last century to the current 'traditional' one. Comparative analysis reveals that when farmers were given the opportunity to experiment with an innovation and to incorporate their own local knowledge, they developed ways of increasing the innovation's contribution to food security and income generation. The methodology for the joint development of an innovation through a participatory approach involving farmers, NGOs and researchers is described in four phases: appraisal, convergence, experimentation and reflection.
Farmer-to-farmer diffusion of new ideas was found to be much more difficult within communities than between communities. The books gives little information about the status of the innovators in their own community and their relationship with other community members, which may have helped explain the differences in their behaviour.
The research gives considerable weight to local points of view. In their own words, the farmers assess the process of developing an innovation and discuss its results. This gives the text a liveliness unusual in a publication from an academic institution.
The author has a background in ecological agriculture and development-oriented research, and completed her doctorate in agricultural extension at Humboldt University Berlin. This is her thesis. It is good to see that German universities are increasingly allowing thesis publication in widely-spoken langauges such as English. However, as the fieldwork was done in Mexico, it is surprising that this book has not also been translated into Spanish. Unfortunately, it was poorly edited. The many errors in spelling, punctuation and word choice detract from the book's important content. The short, straightforward sentences offer some compensation, however.
The book is refreshingly brief for a thesis, and easy to read. It is also encouraging to see that academic qualifications can be earned through a participatory approach to research that also increases the farmers' own ability to analyze their own situation and experiment with potential improvements. (Ann Waters-Bayer, ETC Ecoculture, Leusden, the Netherlands)

Hagmann, JŸrgen, Edward Chuma, Kuda Murwira and Mike Connolly (1998) Learning together through participatory extension: a guide to an approach developed in Zimbabwe. 59 pp. Order No. A-021-E. Booklet is free; only mailing costs are charged. Harare: Department of Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services (AGRITEX) in cooperation with Integrated Rural Development Programme (GTZ/IRDEP) and Intermediate Technology Development Group, Zimbabwe (ITZ). Distribution: Universum Verlagsanstalt, D-65175, Wiesbaden, Germany.
Tel.: +49-611-90 300.
Fax: +49-611-90 30325.
E-mail: horst-dieter.herda@universum.de

The authors of this well-presented booklet have been concerned for several years with indigenous knowledge, farmer-led experimentation, community-based development, and associated institutional issues in Zimbabwe. Their guidelines for participatory extension approaches (PEA) are based on this rich experience, and are enlivened by examples from the field and quotes from farmers and extension workers.
The booklet is written for field staff and middle-level managers of extension services. It outlines a community-oriented approach to rural extension, strongly focused on farmer experimentation and learning. The farmers themselves call this 'Kuturaya', meaning 'Let's try'. The premise is that farmers, on the basis of their own knowledge, can best judge which potential improvements would be interesting to test in their environment. These ideas for improvements might be their own or from other farmers, or they might be from out-side. Instead of transferring technologies, extension workers encourage farmers to experiment. They find that this role gives them great job satisfaction.
PEA involves an action-learning cycle with four main phases: social mobilization through a situational analysis made jointly by insiders and outsiders; community-level action planning; implementation of activities and farmer experimentation; and monitoring and evaluation through the sharing of experiences and ideas. Much attention is given to the local institutions that will sustain this process.
This approach emerged from a long process to change attitudes within a large extension organization. The aim was that managers would recognize the knowledge and experimental capacities of farmers and encourage field staff to strengthen these local capacities through joint learning. Unfortunately, the authors do not refer to the struggle this process entailed and still entails. Introducing PEA was more difficult than the guidelines suggest. Also, the section that is meant to help extension workers to identify local institutions makes things appear simpler than they are in reality.
Nevertheless, this is a very encouraging publication from a national extension service, with a clear account of the various steps that PEA entails, the problems encountered when PEA is implemented at the community level, and how those problems can be dealt with. It also contains a special section on the Training for transformation programme that helped change the attitudes and behaviour of farmers and field-level extensionists. This booklet is recommended reading for anyone concerned with dynamic indigenous knowledge, agricultural extension, and rural development anywhere in the world.
A video film (42 minutes) with the same title is also available and will be reviewed in a future issue of this journal. It can be ordered from: Media for Development Trust, P.O. Box 6755, Harare, Zimbabwe. E-mail: MFD@MANGO.zw
(Ann Waters-Bayer, ETC Ecoculture, Leusden, the Netherlands)

Hochegger, Karin (1998) Farming like the forest: traditional home gardens in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agroecology 9. 203 pp. ISBN 3-8236-1293-X.. DM57 / USD40. Margraf Verlag, P.O.Box 1205, D-97985 Weikersheim, Germany.
Tel.: +49-7934 3071.
Fax: +49-7934 8156.
E-mail: margraf@compuserve.com

The traditional forest gardens of South and Southeast Asia are often celebrated as productive and sustainable forms of agriculture. Karin Hochegger, with support from Austrian Development Cooperation, made a detailed study of one such system: the Kandyan forest gardens surrounding the homes of farmers in central Sri Lanka.
First, she examines the concepts of nature and conservation within the context of the humid vegetation of a tropical island and the rituals and beliefs of the inhabitants. She then traces the history of agriculture in Sri Lanka before, during and after the colonial period, and the important role that the traditional home garden or 'gewatta' continues to play in ensuring local food supply. The main part of the book is devoted to a detailed ecological study of the gewatta: its composition, ethnobotany, structural features and nutrient cycle. Attention is also given to the wild animals and birds for which the gardens offer a haven.
The author's estimates of the inputs and outputs of the gewatta, based on information from three families, suggest that forest-like gardening is highly efficient. Inputs are extremely low (primarily labour for harvesting). Harvests are frequent and varied, and fill most of a family's subsistence needs.
The biological diversity (640 species were identified in 158 gardens) is astounding. The farmers have the attitude that there are few weeds (only some potentially smothering plants), but many plants of which they do not yet know the possible uses. The fact that they allow such plants to continue to grow helps to conserve this biodiversity. The author emphasizes that 'farming like the forest' maintains harmony between nature and mankind. Interestingly, she predicts that additional off-farm earning opportunities would give the gewatta a chance to continue to survive in its full richnness. If, instead, farmers with increased consumer demands would try to live from income from the farm, they would have to devote more land to cash crops, intensify garden production by using fertilizers and pesticides, and change the structure of the gardens.
Some of the closing recommendations are rather conventional. The author recommends establishing a research institute and educating the farmers, whereas the content of the book suggests that the education should go in the opposite direction.
The book is very much oriented to botanical knowledge, both of farmers and of scientists, and has several line drawings of plants by Shanta Jayaweera. People interested in botany and natural farming (according to the patterns and processes of natural ecosystems) will especially enjoy this book.
(Ann Waters-Bayer, ETC Ecoculture, Leusden, the Netherlands)

Hughes, Colin E. (1998) Leucaena: a genetic resource handbook. Tropical Forestry Paper No. 37. 280 pp. ISBN 0-85074-145-9. GBP20 (50% discount for students) plus handling and postage. A limited number of copies are available FREE to institutions and individuals in developing countries. Available in English or Spanish. Order from: Oxford Forestry Institute Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, UK.
Tel.: +44-1865-275 000.
Fax: +44-1865-275 074.
E-mail: coln.hughes@plant-sciences.ox.ac.uk

The author, a senior research botanist with the Oxford Forestry Institute, has 17 years' experience working with woody legumes in Mexico and Central America. His interests are taxonomy, economic botany and indigenous knowledge, particularly as related to tree domestication.
Most agroforestry agents are familiar with leucaena, a shrub or small tree used in soil conservation projects, alley cropping and as a source of fodder. Previously regarded almost as a miracle tree, it fell out of favour when a sucking insect severely damaged many stands throughout the tropics.
The author points out that leucaena is not limited to Leucaena leucocephala, the species most widely known, but is a genus with 29 species and many subspecies, all originally from Central America. Most leucaena grown elsewhere originate from only a few plants.
The resource guide has 11 chapters, which deal with botanical taxonomy (e.g. systematics, species characteristics, species identification, and species accounts), plant breeding (germplasm collections, seed collection and characterization), ethno-botany, indigenous domestication, and the conservation of genetic resources. In the discussion of conservation methods, a distinction is made between conservation in situ (i.e. in protected areas), ex situ (e.g. genebanks) and circa situm (local conser-vation by farmers). The author considers local conservation as the most promising approach because:
1) only a few species can be found in established conservation areas;
2) even with in situ conservation, the principle of 'use it or lose it' is important;
3) genebanks can include only a small range of the natural biodiversity. The danger of a narrow genetic base became evident when the worldwide psyllic attacks in the mid-1980s led to severe decline in leucaena production.

Many readers may have found taxonomy a boring subject in school or college. But the author clearly shows how important taxonomy can be. If a species is not identified correctly, faulty recommendations will be made for growing it, for example. Correct identification of species is also important as regards intended use. The quality of wood and forage differs between species, as does suitability for food production, which is the prime reason that many leucaena species are planted in Central America. If leucaena is to be tried for this purpose elsewhere, choosing the wrong species will bring disappointing results.
The guide offers fascinating reading for those interested in plant introduction. However, the language and the complex presentation of the various issues make the book unsuitable for most fieldworkers; only those with a university education could draw full benefits from it. The format (A4, two columns per page, 275 pages) also makes this an office-bound edition for specialists. It would be good if smaller booklets on specific issues, such as species identification or different strategies for conservation, could be produced in less scientific language for fieldworkers, non-specialists and policymakers.
(Wolfgang Bayer, consultant and lecturer in Animal and Forage Husbandry, University of Gšttingen, Germany)

INASP--the International Network for the Availability for Scientific Publications (1998) The INASP Directory of organisations and networks in rural development: Africa. Pilot edition, July 1998. 229 pp. ISBN 0 9522989 7 X. Sent free of charge to institutions in developing countries; GBP12.50 or USD25 (including shipment by airmail) elsewhere. Order from: INASP, 27 Park End Street, Oxford OX1 1HU, UK.
Tel.: +44-1865-249 909.
Fax: +44-1865-251 060.
Email: inasp@gn.apc.org

(See also IK&DM 6(3), where this publication was first mentioned under 'Preview: Important new books'.)
The directory was compiled by people with extensive experience providing information in and for the South: INASP director Carol Priestley, Graham Rowbotham, and Pru Watts-Russell. Hans Zell provided comments and assistance. Priestley and Rowbotham also edited the INASP Directory (1997), which listed donor organizations and the information services they offer to the South.
This new directory identifies rural development organizations in the South that publish or otherwise offer information services. The aim is to make these information services better known, especially in the South itself.
The compilers deserve a compliment for their courage in tackling such a vast area. Rural development is defined in its broadest sense to include all aspects of agriculture, environment, community development, etc. Recognizing that it would be impossible to cover all organizations and networks engaged in rural development, the compilers restricted the pilot directory to Africa. It is intended that future editions will include Asia and Latin America. A separate directory on health organizations is scheduled for 1999.
A wealth of practical information guides the reader to the sources. Websites and other details for making contact are provided; cross-references are given; and journals, newsletters and CD-ROMs are listed. Under the heading 'services', keywords are used to list an organization's main areas of activity as well as its information services. Each entry lists an organization's objectives, subject areas, activities, services provided, and publications. Everything is presented in a well-organized way, and the indexes are good.
Even with the geographical limitation, it seems to have been difficult enough just to cover Africa. Part 1 identifies 103 organizations from 27 countries, which are only about half of the countries of Africa. Only one North African organization is listed. The directory includes organizations from English-speaking and French-speaking Africa, but hardly any from Spanish-speaking Africa.
African organizations are listed under seven broad headings: agriculture, animal production, aquaculture, development, forestry, natural resources, and plant production. The category 'development' is the broadest. It includes a few general organizations that are not focussed on rural development, such as Padis and Codesria.
In Part 2, non-African regional and international organizations are given an unexpectedly prominent place. In this South-South directory they account for one-third of the listings. Over two-thirds of the organizations listed are based in Europe or Asia. The criteria for including organizations are not given.
Part 3 is a concise alphabetical listing of the newsletters, bulletins and journals mentioned in the directory. Only the titles and producing organizations are given.
On the whole, the information contained in this pilot edition of the Rural Development Directory is sound, detailed, and highly valuable to anyone who is interested in rural development. It is a must for all libraries and information centres in the field, in both South and North. The information was gathered from questionnaires and printed materials. But INASP also made an effort to include information derived from other sources, including agricultural networks and the Internet. In this way the directory will help to bring some order to the rapidly growing mass of information sources.
Will the directory succeed in making information produced in the South more widely available on a South-South basis? This all depends on the comprehensiveness of future editions and on INASP's distribution policies. Unfortunately, there is no indication as to when the pilot issue will be extended or updated, and whether it will become available electronically as well. No doubt there will be a growth process. Organizations not yet listed might eventually supply information pro-actively: i.e., organizations will themselves seek to be included. As users gradually come to value the directory's full potential and make use not only of the practical information but also of the information services, they will demand extended editions that serve them even better.
(Elli de Rijk, Head of Library and Documentation, African Studies Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands)

Kaufmann, Brigitte (1998) Analysis of pastoral camel husbandry in northern Kenya. Hohenheim Tropical Agricultural Series No. 5. 194 pp. ISBN 3-8236-1286-7. DM42.10 or USD26. Margraf Verlag, P.O. Box 1205, D-97985 Weikersheim, Germany.
Tel.: +49-7934 3071.
Fax: +49-7934 8156.
E-mail: margraf@compuserve.com

This book provides a good example of how formal research and indigenous knowledge can be brought together. A literature review offers a sound description of the present state of formal knowledge. The author studied camel husbandry among three pastoral groups in nothern Kenya--Rendille, Gabra and Somalili--mainly by talking with people and observing. Data based on the herders' recollections of progeny history were used for bio-economic calculations and modelling.
It is fascinating to see how neighbouring groups differ in terms of the aspects of camel production they choose to emphasize and the effect this has on forage management. This in turn is related not only to different rainfall regimes (the Somali live in a somewhat wetter area than the other two groups) but also to proximity to market outlets and differences in culture. The Rendille are more subsistence-oriented than the Somali, who sell milk and male animals and for whom the social exchange of animals (e.g. as brideprice) is not as important as it is for the other groups. Camel breeding practices also differ between the groups. The Somali and Gabra maintain relatively constant rates of calving, whereas calving rates show greater variation in the Rendille system. The way in which the author presents different possibilities for calculating camel productivity is very convincing.
The results of the model calculations were presented to the pastoralists and discussed with them. Although such confirmation of results should be a matter of course in research, it is still exceptional. The benefits for both the researcher and the researched are evident. The feedback seminars with the pastoralists led to agreement regarding what is the main problem: high calf mortality, mainly because of disease. The solution suggested by the researcher is affordable and simple: feeding calves colostrum during the first days after birth. Apparently the pastoralists regard colostrum as 'spoiled milk', although it is very rich in protein and contains antibodies which can transfer some immunity from mother to calf. This is a good example of how 'formal science' can help improve pastoralists' stock management practices.
This doctoral thesis goes beyond merely describing the logic behind indigenous practices of animal and pasture management and indicating their strong points. It also deals with the influence of adverse conditions on the traditional systems. It urges policymakers to seek a better understanding of indigenous management practices and to alter their counterproductive attempts to modernize the nomadic way of life. Let us hope that development projects in northern Kenya take up the recommendation. As this book is a thesis, the main target group consists not of fieldworkers but rather of fellow academics and animal specialists working in development organizations who understand the specialist's language, style of presentation and way of thinking. It would be highly desirable if the main points could be presented in a simpler, shorter version that would be accessible to fieldworkers and pastoralists with some formal education.
(Wolfgang Bayer, consultant and lecturer in Animal and Forage Husbandry, University of Gšttingen, Germany)

Kerr, John M., Dinesh K. Marothia, Katar Singh, C. Ramasamy, and William R. Bentley (eds) (1997) Natural resource economics: theory and application in India. xxxvi + 636 pp. ISBN 81-204-1095-5. USD59.50. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., 66 Janpath, New Dehli 110 - 001, India.

This book provides an excellent review of natural resources and environmental economics in India. Economic theory and methods related to environmental and resource management are presented in the context of South Asia. Several chapters deal with the use of participatory approaches for incorporating indigenous knowledge into economic analyses. This should make the book of particular interest to the readership of the Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. But the book is probably best suited as a textbook for courses in natural resource and environmental economics which are offered at advanced undergraduate and master's-degree level, especially in India.
This is an edited volume with 26 chapters and 33 contributors. It has four major sections: Introduction; Concepts; Research Methods; and Applications. Because it is extremely well edited, chapters are cross-referenced and consistent. The sets of discussion questions at the end of each chapter offer useful aids for the classroom.
As Daniel Bromley points out in the preface, this volume quickly and emphatically dispels the notion that resource and environmental economics are best suited to developed countries. The chapters on market failures, property rights, pollution abatement, and the allocation of resources demonstrate that economic theory can be applied equally well to institutional and social conditions in India. Furthermore, the excellent case studies dealing with common property regimes, groundwater management, tank and well irrigation, and non-timber forest products demonstrate how economic analyses can be applied to Indian resource management.
A key feature of this book are the three chapters on research methods. The first marks a significant departure from traditional economics texts and discusses participatory research. This is a clear challenge to traditional economists, who use statistical inference to test hypotheses based on the neoclassical economic model. This chapter does not prove that participatory approaches can replace traditional survey methods. Together with a chapter describing an application of the approach, it does, however, show that by eliciting indigenous knowledge, the participatory approach can be very beneficial for the development of hypotheses.
(Robert R. Hearne, Environmental Economist, CATIE--Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Ense–aza, Turrialba, Costa Rica)

Louwaars, N.P. with G.A.M. Marrewijk (1997) Seed supply systems in developing countries. 135 pp. ISBN 92-9081-1471. NLG 40. Free for readers in ACP (African, Caribbean, Pacific) countries. For information, please write to the Director, Centre Technique de Coopération Agricole et Rurale (CTA) -Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, P.O. Box 380, 6700 AJ Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Tel.: +31-317-467 100.
Fax: +31-317-460 067.
E-mail: cta@cta.nl

The authors of Seed supply systems in developing countries discuss local and formal systems for supplying seeds, call for integrated seed-supply systems given the limitations of both local and formal systems, and finish with chapters covering seed policy and seed-industry develop-ment, current issues, and four case studies of seed-supply systems.
Persons working with indigenous knowledge and development should find the chapter on local seed-supply systems of particular interest. It covers crop domestication, farmers' seed sources and methods of selection, seed storage, and seed dissemination. Unfortunately, the relatively short chapter cannot cover the entire wealth of material on local seed-supply systems that is currently available. Another problem is that the authors perhaps too readily invoke 'culture' as an explanation for the differences in practices and preferences that have been observed.
The long section on formal seed-supply systems, on the other hand, provides a good textbook coverage of plant breeding, seed production and classes, seed conditioning, and seed marketing and quality control. The section is complete, clearly written, and well illustrated. Students considering a career in plant breeding might start with this chapter.
The central thesis of the book, however, is that both the local and the formal seed systems have limitations; and that an integrated approach would go far in addressing these limitations. Basically and for a range of reasons explained in the chapter, formal seed systems have not been able to meet the needs of poor and heterogeneous agroecosystems. On the other hand, local seed systems are slow in terms of selection; production systems suffer from several technical problems (the main one being seed-transmitted diseases); and diffussion is usually slow. As a re-sponse to such limitations, two types of integrated systems have emerged: a) those that combine formal plant breeding with local seed production and diffusion techniques; and b) those that use formal sector seed production techniques for local varieties. The first type of integrated system is meant to aid technology transfer from research institutions. The second is meant to improve the quality and security of seed supply to local farmers, often on a small scale.
This latter area of improving seed production techniques for local or 'improved' varieties seeks to build upon local practices and knowledge, applying knowledge from the formal sector to improve seed quality and supply. Examples of such systems deal with soybean in Bolivia, cassava in Colombia, and vegetables in Sri Lanka. Each of these cases show the importance of participatory, 'bottom-up' approaches.
Sections on seed policy and seed industry development and on current issues (genetic diversity, seed supply in emergency conditions, and plant breeding for low-input agriculture) are, again, textbook-like in writing: they are clearly written general reviews providing greater range than depth. Finally, practical insights are provided by the case studies of seed potato supply in Peru, participatory seed development in Senegal, maize seed development in east Africa, and vegetable seed production in South East Asia.
Overall, the authors have provided timely and thoughtful insights into the issue of how seed supply systems can be improved through the integration of the best qualities of local and formal systems. The work of different CIAT (where this reviewer is employed) researchers working with national agricultural research systems in Africa and Latin America has shown the difficulties involved in successfully integrating formal and local systems. In clearly defining issues and possible approaches to be taken, Seed supply systems in developing countries should provide needed positive assistance to such efforts.
(Sam Fujisaka, agricultural anthropologist, CIAT--Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia)

MYRADA and IIRR (1997) Resource management in rainfed drylands: an information kit. xvi + 356 pp. ISBN 0-942717-71-6. USD20 (excluding postage). Order from: MYRADA, No.2 Service Road, Domlur Layout, Bangalore 560071, India.
Tel.: +91-80-554 3166.
Fax :+ 91-80-556 9982.
E-mail: myrada@giasbg01.vsnl.net.in
Or from: International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.
Tel.: +63-46-414 2417.
Fax: +63-46-414 2420.
E-mail: iirr@phil.gn.apc.org

Over the past decades, all kinds of agricultural technologies meant to improve dryland agriculture in semi-arid India (where, on average, rainfall is less than 800 mm/year) have been developed by scientists in that country. The Indian government, by way of its extension service and through numerous programmes and projects, has tried, in a top-down manner, to induce dryland farmers to adopt these innovations. Many Indian NGOs have tried to do the same. But these agents of change have all met with reluctance on the part of farmers, who have been unwilling to adopt entire packages of recommendations. 1
Because there seemed to be a need for broadly applicable practical guidelines for dryland agriculture, the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) and the Indian NGO MYRADA (MYsore Relief And Development Agency) decided to compile information on farmer-tested dryland technologies and practices. IIRR and MYRADA held a joint workshop for this purpose in Bangalore (India) on 17-31 January 1997. This information kit is the result.
The kit is very informative and describes the priorities of dryland farmers themselves. It is aimed at the people who work in dryland development projects: managers, technicians and extension workers who are employed by either the government or by NGOs. The book is written in plain English and richly illustrated with excellent drawings, making the information very accessible. This contrasts sharply with the usual weighty academic publication that discusses a few subjects at great length. Nevertheless, scientists will also find this a very useful reference work.
The book has seven chapters. The first introduces the general issues of dryland agriculture in India, and includes sections on traditional approaches to natural resource management, on the degradation of natural resources, and on the conservation of biodiversity in semi-arid India. Gender issues and indicators of unsustainability are also discussed, among other things.
The second chapter is on soil and water conservation in drylands. It offers an overview of the many measures that have been recommended, and why so many of these have been rejected by farmers. The chapter shows that farmers prefer multi-purpose technologies over single-purpose technologies. It also discusses various strategies--both indigenous and 'recommended'--for conserving soil and water in order to improve drylands.
Chapter 3 is on the principles, concepts and methods for the management of dryland crops. Chapter 4 discusses a wide range of soil management practices suitable for the various types of soil found in Indian drylands. These include tillage practices, integrated nutrient management, composting, and mulching. The fifth chapter is about alternative land use, and presents practical strategies for achieving relatively high returns from drylands: through horticulture, silvipasture and tree farming, for example. Chapter 6 discusses the tools and implements used--both indigenous (e.g. hoes, ploughs and harrows) and modern (e.g. seed-cum-fertilizer drills and threshers)--as well as post-harvest technologies.
This reviewer was pleasantly surprised to find in such a technical book a chapter on 'civil society building', which was motivated by the fact that dryland development initiatives have often failed to take the participation and empowerment of small-scale farmers into account. Also discussed in this final chapter are farmer-to-farmer extension, participatory technology development, participatory learning, and the participatory monitoring and evaluation of dryland development projects.
Three shortcomings must be mentioned, however. The first I think has to do with the broadness of the target groups and the purpose of the book. There are many sections that are only a few pages long. This means that some subjects are treated only superficially. Secondly, because the manual sets out to give practical guidelines for dryland agriculture which are broadly applicable, the authors feel justified in not linking either the indigenous technologies or the recommendations to any specific locations. This casts some doubt on whether the technologies discussed in the book are really so well adapted to particular agro-ecological situations in semi-arid India. Thirdly, while it is claimed that the book presents information on farmer-tested technologies and practices, quite a few of the modern technologies discussed (e.g. contour cultivation and the use of animal-drawn tool carriers) are known to have been rejected by dryland farmers. Nevertheless, these are discussed in an uncritical manner.
Notwithstanding these weaknesses, the book provides a comprehensive picture of the indigenous and modern technologies used by dryland farmers in India. It can be recommended to everyone with an interest in dryland agriculture.
(Marcel Put, research associate, Amsterdam Research Institute for Global Issues and Development Studies (AGIDS), Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands)

1 See e.g.: M. Put, Innocent farmers? A comparative evaluation into a government and an NGO project located in semi-arid Andhra Pradesh (India), meant to induce farmers to adopt innovations for dryland agriculture. Amsterdam: Thela-Thesis, 1998.

Pierce Colfer, Carol J. with Nancy Peluso and Chin See Chung (1997) Beyond slash and burn: Building on indigenous management of Borneo's tropical rainforests. Advances in Economic Botany

no. 11. 248 pp. ISBN 0-89327-405-4. USD28 (plus postage and handling). The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York 10458 -5126, USA.
Tel.: +1-718-817 8721.
Fax: +1-718-817 8842.
E-mail: scipubs@nybg.org

Carol Pierce Colfer, an anthropol-ogist, started work in East Kalimantan in 1979 under the Man and the biosphere (MAB) project. Since then she has worked in interdisciplinary research teams on various projects. Her many publications reveal a commitment to indigenous groups in Indonesia, and to the rational application of their practices and knowledge to sustainable development.
Beyond slash and burn is based on ethnographic fieldwork conducted in 1979-80 and 1991 in three Uma' Jalan villages in East Kalimantan. The book describes how the Uma' Jalan use forest resources and presents the wealth of indigenous knowledge underlying that use. The Uma' Jalan grow rice in fields cut from the forest, maintain both home and forest gardens, and make use of a wide range of products of the land at all stages. As farmers, the Uma' Jalan carefully select sites for fields based on their knowledge of soils and indicator plants. Forest and field products include a wide variety of foods (from both animals and plants), medicines, and craft and construction materials from each of the stages of forest regrowth. Almost a book within the book, the appendices list the plants used for food, medicine, timber, and other forest products, and describe the indigenous methods for preparing and using medicinal plants. Although ownership exists, much of the culture is based on sharing resources and redistributing wealth when necessary.
Uma' Jalan use of the forest represents a form of indigenous agro-forestry in which the different types of fields and forest can be compared to the aisles of a supermarket. The system's sustainability is attributed to the local people's understanding and management of the different stages of forest regrowth. Pierce Colfer argues that research and policy seeking to improve the use of humid tropical rainforests should build upon indigenous agroforestry systems such as the one described. Although she acknowledges the argument against the 'mining' of indigenous knowledge, she feels that the use of such knowledge is in everyone's best interest.
A follow-up visit by the author in 1995 revealed an unfortunate degradation of both the indigenous culture and its sustainable land use practices under the influence of several factors: an expanded cash-based economy, logging, commercial timber estates, and transmigration settlement programmes. Indeed, our current work in the same area (part of collaborative work at 18 sites around South East Asia through a Forages for smallholders project) is now with poor

transmigrant settlers who have had to settle in the large areas presently covered with Imperata cylindrica.
Beyond slash-and-burn represents careful, thoughtful, and useful research. Many methods from participant observation to dietary record keeping to ecological studies were employed and are reflected in the wealth of information integrated in the book. Clearly, the author and her many research partners over time cared for their work, the systems studied, and the Uma' Jalan of the three communities in which work was conducted. The potential applications of the book's many findings range from the call to build on indigenous practices in working to improve slash-and-burn systems (a view shared rather than rejected by the Alternatives to slash and burn project mentioned by the author) to the detailed information on medicinal plant usage.
(Sam Fujisaka, agricultural anthropologist, CIAT--Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia)

Pretty, Jules (1998) The living land. Agriculture, food and community regeneration in rural Europe. 324 pp. ISBN 1 85383516 1. GBP18.99. Earthscan Publications Ltd., 120 Pentonville Road, London N1 9JN, UK.
Tel.: +44-171-278 0433.
Fax: +44-171-278 1142.
E-mail: earthinfo@earthscan.co.uk

Jules Pretty offers a thorough discussion of the diverse issues surrounding not just agriculture, but also food systems and rural communities in Europe. The book argues that we must change to agri-cultural and food systems which enhance human, plant and animal communities.
The book begins with the effects of modern agriculture on the natural environment and goes on to examine the ramifications of industrial agricultural practices for food systems, the effects of increasingly globalized food systems on production, and the impact of both agricultural production and food systems on rural communities. I was struck by phenomenal loss of biodiversity in the livestock species of Europe.
Besides discussing the negative impact of industrialized agriculture and globalized food systems, the author gives examples of counteractive measures and the progress that has been made, and offers practical suggestions for other measures and policy changes. He calls for policy that promotes rather than counteracts sustainable agriculture, and strongly urges that local resources (natural and social) be used to help reverse the demise of rural communities. This is better than waiting for outsiders to act.
Pretty directly addresses several common arguments or 'myths', such as the notion that 'sustainable agriculture represents a return to some form of low-technology, backward or traditional agricultural practice' (p. 120). He argues that short-term efficiencies of production should not be the single most important consideration; the effects of agricultural practices and food systems on natural and social capital are equally important. Most arguments are well supported with examples and documentation, mainly from the UK, where the author is based, but also from continental Europe, followed by the US, Canada and a number of developing countries. He makes a good start on providing a set of indicators for tracking progress towards more sustainable production systems. More importantly, he lists the characteristics of such indicators.
The author puts his vast experience in the field of international agricultural and rural development to good use for comparative and illustrative purposes, particularly as regards community participation.
The book is easy to read. Each chapter is well sub-titled, well structured and concludes with a concise summary of Pretty's expansive discussions. A helpful index allows readers to find information on specific topics and countries. The book will interest a wide readership of academics and practioners from countries at any level of industrialization.
(Deirdre Birmingham, independent consultant in human resources development in agriculture, Atlanta, GA, USA.)

Reuler, Hendrik van (1996) Nutrient management over extended cropping periods in the shifting cultivation system of Southwest C™te d'Ivoire. Tropical Resource Management Papers No. 12. 189 pp. ISSN 0926-9495; No. 12. NLG25. Published by: Wageningen Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition. Order from: Wageningen Agricultural University, Liaison Office, P.O. Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Tel.: +31-317-484 293.
Fax: +31-317-484 292.
E-mail: office@alg.kb.wau.nl

Hendrik van Reuler is a soil scientist associated with Wageningen Agricultural University (WAU), the Netherlands. He has field experience starting in 1975 in Kenya, and later in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia under the Man and the biosphere (MAB) project. Van Reuler coordinated the soil science programme of the WAU project Analysis and design of land-use systems in the Tai region of south-west C™te d'Ivoire from late 1986 to early 1991. Van Reuler's research resulted in his PhD thesis (1995) and in the book reviewed here.
Van Reuler designed and conducted trials to examine nutrient dynamics under conditions of shifting cultivation. Work was carried out over four-and-a-half years in the forest margins adjoining the Tai National Park in southwest C™te d'Ivoire. This clearly written book reflects well-designed experiments asking important questions which are then answered on the basis of careful and insightful analysis.

Van Reuler examined nutrient dynamics-- with and without burning, and with and without applications of inorganic fertilizers--in areas characterized by differences in soil texture and drainage, in fields that had lain fallow for different lengths of time (4 and 20 years), and over five seasons after clearing. Crop responses were measured for rice and maize.
Although the research does not deal with indigenous knowledge, anyone working with shifting cultivators should find the book useful. It describes some of the key biophysical dynamics underlying many of the practices associated with slash-and-burn agriculture. The findings include both confirmation of past ideas about shifting cultivation and some possibly surprising new results.
The book's 11 chapters are organized into five sections: a general introduction; sections on nutrient release from burnt fallow vegetation, identification of nutritional constraints and related soil properties, and nutrient dynamics in space and time; and a synthesis. Van Reuler's research follows in the tradition of Pedro Sanchez and colleagues, then from the University of North Carolina, who worked in Yurimaguas, Peru, in the 1970s. They studied the nutrient dynamics of shifting cultivation in order to identify soil nutrient management strategies that would allow an intensification of land use from shifting cultivation to more permanent systems.
Some of Van Reuler's findings are provocative. Ash benefits were greater in fields established after a shorter fallow period, apparently because vegetation that had grown larger and thicker over 20 years could be dried and burned less completely than the vegetation of four years. For three seasons, rice yields stayed the same in fields that had been slashed but not burned. In fields that were burned, yields were significantly higher in the first two seasons, but in the third season they declined to the level of the unburned fields. These results indicate that yields decline (and fields are abandoned) as a result of ash depletion rather than declining inherent soil fertility. Over five seasons, crop yields were not sustained at the same levels even if fertilizer was applied. The study identifies deterioration in the soil's physical properties as the probable reason for this (rather than soil nutrient depletion). This deterioration is caused by decreases in macro-fauna which have a positive effect on the soil. The decline in animal life is attributed in turn to the removal of crop residues, which leaves insufficient vegetative matter to support effective populations.
Van Reuler's reason for trying to find ways of managing nutrients that would make more permanent cropping possible is because agricultural intensification would decrease pressure on forestlands, resulting in lower rates of deforestation. This is currently the subject of considerable scientific investigation and debate. Overall, the book provides a great deal of information crucially important to the development of agri-cultural systems that are more sustainable than the slash-and-burn practised by most migrant forest settlers. Such land use alternatives range from the use of fertilizers in annual crop production to fallow management options to various systems of agroforestry. The book represents exactly the type of research we need for our own work at CIAT which is part of the global project Alternatives to slash-and-burn.
(Sam Fujisaka, agricultural anthropologist, CIAT--Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia)

Thurston, H. David (1997) Slash/Mulch systems. Sustainable methods for tropical agriculture. 198 pp. ISBN 1-85339-340-1. GBP14.95. IT Publications, 103-105 Southampton Row, London WC1B 4HH, UK. Published in the USA by Westview Press, 5500 Central Avenue, Boulder, Colorado 80301 -2877, USA.

Slash-and-mulch systems are characterized by the on-site cutting and mulching of vegetation. The slashed vegetation is not burned. It can include forest cover, grasses, sown green manures and cover crops, and/or sown trees. Positive claims for these systems include shorter fallow periods, the restoration of degraded soils, increased and stabilized yields, and the resulting benefits for human welfare. David Thurston sees these systems as an alternative to slash-and-burn agriculture.
The book provides a review of indigenous slash-and-mulch systems gleaned largely from ethnographic writings. It contains sections on cover crops and green manures, on alley cropping, and on the effects of mulches and cover crops on soil plant pathogens and associated root diseases. The author seems to review everything ever published on indigenous slash-and-mulch systems.
As Thurston says in the introduction, 'It is significant that most of the agri-cultural systems described in this book were developed by traditional farmers, not scientists, development entities, or governments' (p 1). Researchers interested in indigenous agricultural knowledge and practices, in low external-input agri-culture, or in alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture, should find the first six chapters useful and interesting. Unfortunately, and as is clearly acknowledged by the author, many if not most of the references cited refer only casually or in passing to local agricultural practices. This means that many of the cases are unclear regarding the proportion of agricultural land under this system compared with the other systems also in use. It seems that slash-and-mulch systems have been employed mainly in low-lying areas or areas of high rainfall, where burning was precluded. The sections on cover crops and green manures, and on alley cropping or agroforestry systems, however, discuss technologies developed and promoted as much by scientists and development agencies as by farmers. Thurston points out that in humid areas all over the world, the use of cover crops and green manure is growing.
The final chapter, 'Effects of organic mulches, soil amendments, and cover crops on soil-borne plant pathogens and their root diseases', is inconclusive. Effects are both positive and negative, suggesting that more research is needed.
Although the author is fair in presenting both positive and negative aspects of slash-and-mulch systems, his tone favours the advantages and he recommends considering this system as an alternative to slash-and-burn agriculture. I would have to agree, especially given my own participation over the past several years in the global initiative known as Alternatives to slash-and-burn. The book concludes with 20 recommendations. Nineteen of these are based on one or more positive effects of the slash-and-mulch system. Only the last recommendation (to give credits to farmers who use mulch-based systems) implies that adoption is not necessarily automatic. Indeed, my own concern is the present lack of enthusiasm for such systems among the people who would adopt them. This concern is based on my experiences in the field in many of the areas (and with many of the people) whom Thurston cites. I have been disappointed not to find more cases of people adopting mulch-based systems. My recommendations for further research would have to include a search for the reasons for this, especially in light of the continuation of slash-and-burn agriculture in most tropical-forest, hillside, and even savanna agro-ecosystems around the world.
(Sam Fujisaka, agricultural anthropologist, CIAT--Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical, Cali, Colombia)

Vries, Jacqueline de (1998) Catholic mission, colonial government and indigenous response in Kom (Cameroon). Research report 56/1998. vii + 126 pp. ISBN 90-5448-032-3. NLG12.50 plus fee for packing and postage. African Studies Centre; P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, the Netherlands.
Tel.: +31-71-527 3490.
Fax: +31-71-527 3344.
E-mail: dorrepaal@fsw.leidenuniv.nl

This interesting case study deals with the relationship between Catholic missions, colonial government and local powers in Kom (Cameroon), from the beginning of colonization to the period after the Second World War. I think it is an important historical work, which clearly illustrates the process of change that results from an encounter between two cultures.
The work has an important link with studies of indigenous knowledge and sustainable development. The author furnishes a thorough analysis of the changing social context, from which the complexity of local civilization and the central role of indigenous culture emerge clearly as major factors in the process.
This book is valuable for both its subject and the way it treats that subject. Its approach to such controversial matters as colonization and religion is to document and explain clearly what happened. The book is written in a friendly style and very well documented; it is based on general literature, local reports, and oral testimonies. I think this book has great informative value, offering a very sharp analysis of social and political change and the context in which it takes place, and of power relationships. The complexity of the case is well illustrated, demonstrating the inadequacy of easy dichotomies. The case also makes the need for contextualization clear. The context proves important, all the way from the broad political picture to the psychological portraits of the key figures.
I would recommend this book to anyone who is interested in colonization and/or missionary work, to social students examining the power issue, and to the general public. I think there is a need to support further studies of this kind in all regions of Africa. In particular, I sincerely hope that all teachers of African history will read it.
(Paolo Segalla, development consultant, Casalmaggiore, Italy)

Wanyama, Jacob B. (1997) Confidently used ethnoveterinary knowledge among pastoralists of Samburu, Kenya. Book 1: Methodology and results. Book 2: Preparation and administration. Book 1: 82 pp. Book 2: 109 pp. ISBN book 1: 9966-9606-7-8. Book 2: 9966-9606-8-6. KES300 plus shipping charges. Intermediate Technology (IT) Kenya, P. O. Box 39493, Nairobi, Kenya.
Tel.: +254-2-442 108/444 887.
Fax: +254-2-445 166.
E-mail: itkenya@itdg.or.ke

The lives of Samburu and Turkana pastoralists in semi-arid northern Kenya centre around their livestock. The herders know when their animals are sick, and through observation and trial-and-error they have developed a range of treatments for the various ailments. This ethnoveterinary knowledge is a rich resource, especially in places where modern veterinary medicine is too expensive or unavailable.
As part of the Samburu Livestock Programme, for which Intermediate Technology (IT) Kenya and Oxfam are responsible, IT Kenya conducted a study to:
- determine the level of understanding and use of traditional remedies in Samburu and Turkana communities;
- identify treatments that the pastoralists were confident worked, and determine whether these treatments could be recommended;
- determine whether the availability, efficacy and safety of such remedies could be improved;
- share the findings with other organizations.

Book 1 of this publication focuses on the methodology and results of this study. First, pastoralists compiled a list of some 60 livestock diseases through focus-group discussions. Key informants were then asked to rank the diseases, which could be placed in three categories:
- diseases regarded as most important in the area;
- diseases which the informants were confident could be effectively treated (presumably with both modern and traditional medicine);
- diseases that could be treated with traditional remedies.

Next, key informants were interviewed to obtain details of the traditional treatments, and an analysis was made to find the most frequently cited treatments. Information was also collected on who holds the knowledge, how it is shared, and who uses it.
Book 2 provides details of common treatments for the following diseases found in the Samburu communities: retained placenta; fleas; rejection of calf; leeches; streptothricosis; fractures; eye infection; dystocia; bloat and wounds. These are followed by those found in the Turkana communities: leeches; streptothricosis; lice; retained placenta; bloat; eye infection; diarrhoea; mange; wounds and jaundice or anaplasmosis. For each of the common treatments, the book describes methods of preparation and administration, side-effects, effectiveness, time of application, administration, harvesting, availability, storage, and use in humans. Appendices list additional remedies and the names of the medicinal plants used.
The books are written in easy-to-understand English and are illustrated with many line drawings. Although the presentation of the methodology and data in Book 1 is sometimes confusing and makes the reader work hard, both books contain valuable information for researchers who intend to do ethno-veterinary studies and identify medicinal plants for further testing. Staff of animal health projects can draw on the methodology in their work with communities. They might even use some of the remedies if modern alternatives are lacking. Most of the remedies in Book 2 have not yet been tested in the laboratory, and the books do not include any scientific background information on the various plants and treatments. But the fact that pastoralists have such high regard for the treatments indicates their possible effectiveness.
In the next phase of the project, some of the remedies will be validated scientifically and then re-applied in community-based animal health programmes. This will make the project a pioneering effort to apply the findings of systematic research in ethnoveterinary medicine. (Evelyn Mathias, independent consultant, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany)

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