IK Monitor Articles (7-2)

Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor, July 1999

Contents IK Monitor (7-2) | IKDM Homepage | Suggestions to: ikdm@nuffic.nl | © copyright Nuffic-CIRAN and contributors 1999.

Traditional use and sale of animals as medicines in Feira de Santana City, Bahia, Brazil
by Eraldo Medeiros Costa Neto

The therapeutic use of animals and animal parts, such as skin or fat, to treat common human ailments like coughs and asthma has been little researched. This article presents the findings of a study carried out in Northeastern Brazil, where traders and users of these products were interviewed, and detailed information was obtained on the traditional therapeutic use of 17 different animal species. In view of the fact that six of those species are in danger of extinction, the author advocates the creation of policies designed to promote the sustainable use of the species, for the benefit of future generations.

The science of ethnozoology is concerned with how human beings perceive, manage, classify and use animal species. One of the possible uses of animals, both wild and domesticated, is for human healing. The name we give to the medicinal use of animals and animal-derived products is zootherapy. According to the zootherapeutic universality hypothesis (Marques 1994), all human civilizations with a structured medical system will utilize animals as medicines. Indeed, animal-based medicines have always played a significant role in the healing practices, magic rituals, and religions of indigenous and Western societies all over the world (Weiss 1947; Angeletti et al. 1992; Rosner 1992).
Although the phenomenon of zootherapy is widespread, it has only recently aroused the interest of researchers from various branches of science. Some are focusing on its cultural aspects, while others are studying the pharmacological effects of the substances involved. Of the 252 essential chemicals which have been selected by the World Health Organization, 11.1% come from plants, and 8.7% from animals (Marques 1997). Animal-derived compounds may bring considerable benefits to both producer and user in terms of monetary value and human welfare. For example, angiotensin, which is used to combat low blood pressure, earns the Squibb Company USD 1.3 billion a year in sales, and contributes to the well-being and longevity of millions of people (Lovejoy 1997). In Brazil, substances derived from an estimated 300 species are sold by herbalists and medicine men in markets throughout the country (Marques, pers. comm., 1996). Unfortunately, many of these are endangered species (IBAMA 1989). In fact, the number of neotropical fauna species is declining so rapidly --as a result of hunting, degradation of their ecosystems, and therapeutic use--that most of them are becoming extinct even before they have been studied by science (Huxtable 1992). Therefore, the time has come to record indigenous knowledge related to therapeutic animal use, and to devise strategies to exploit these natural resources more sustainably, so that future generations will be able to enjoy their benefits.

Feira de Santana
This article exemplifies various aspects of the phenomenon of zootherapy on the basis of a student research project carried out in Feira de Santana in the state of Bahia, Northeastern Brazil (see map: Map of the city of Feira de Santana within the State of Bahia, Brazil). Feira de Santana is the second largest Bahian city, whose major economic activities are commerce, agriculture, and cattle raising. The social group studied corresponds to the typical Brazilian racial profile: European, African, or Indian and various combinations of these. Due to their economic and social background, many of these people are illiterate, and both men and women make their living by selling medicinal herbs and animals.

Methodology
Information was obtained through fieldwork conducted by 18 undergraduates of an ethnobiology course at Feira de Santana State University (UEFS). The students made four visits to the city's main market (Centro de Abastecimento), and did open-ended interviews with herbalists, sellers and traders from April to May 1995, and from August to September 1996 (see photo: Student collecting cultural data at Centro de Abastecimento, Feira de Santana's main market.). They introduced themselves as undergraduates and asked the herbalists whether they knew about remedies made from animals and whether they used them in their folk medicine. They also asked about the ailments for which the animal-derived remedies were prescribed, and the manner in which the medicines were administered.
Prior to the interviews, the students were divided into three groups of at least three individuals, on the basis of their special interest, namely ethnozoology, ethnobotany, and ethnomedicine. Before each interview, the interviewers asked their informants for permission to record the conversations and take photographs. The ideal length of each interview was at least 30 minutes.
Where possible, medicinal raw materials were purchased; these were then catalogued and deposited in the Laboratory of Ethnobiology of the Feira de Santana State University, together with other ethnobiological collections. The more common species were identified by the author, using zoological references; other specimens were sent to specialists for taxonomic identification. Crustaceans were identified by Dr Tereza Calado (Universidade de Alagoas); echinoderms by Dr Winston Leahy (Universidade de Alagoas), and fish specimens by Dr Paulo Duarte (Laboratory of Ichthyology at UEFS).

Results
The faunistic resources used and commercialized as medicines by the herbalists consist of mammals (5), birds (2), reptiles (3), fish (4), arthropods (2), and echinoderms (1). An unusual find was a crustacean of the order Stomatopoda (Claridopsis dubia H. Milne-Edwards). Its local name is barata-do-mar or mantis crab, and it is recommended for the treatment of asthma. This is the first time that such a crustacean species has been recorded as medicine in Brazil. See the table for the zootherapeutic species, the raw materials used, and the diseases for which they are prescribed, as well as the popular prescriptions for which they provide the ingredients.

Folk medicinal use of animals in Fiera de Santana City, State of Bahia, Brazil

Most of the folk remedies are administered in the form of teas, syrups or plasters. Respiratory diseases are the most frequently cited ailment, while fat is the most common zootherapeutic, usually in the form of massage oil for the treatment of strains, bruises, insect bites, boils and rheumatism. Further research will be required not only to confirm the medicinal value of these traditional remedies, but also to make possible a more ecologically and socially sound development.
Medicinal resources derived from animals are of great importance. Given the fact that there is limited access to official medicines and proper medical care, they are the only resources available to the majority of the human population. However, the indiscriminate use of animal species as medicines is a worldwide concern, as their current therapeutic use in Feira de Santana demonstrates. The traditional trade in wild products used as medicines represents a source of income and sellers and users may be less inclined to question the supply. This is a cause for concern, as at least six species of animals officially listed by IBAMA (1989) as threatened species were found among the products prescribed as medicines at the time of this research: Trichechus manatus and T. inunguis (two kinds of manatees), Coendou cf. prehensilis (porcupine), Mazama cf. gouazoubira (brocket deer), Bradypus sp. (sloth), and Rhea americana (greater rhea). They have been turned into amulets and remedies, and are sold not only in Feira de Santana but throughout the country.

Future prospects
Instead of taking punitive measures against the practitioners of zootherapy, or creating policies which force them to abandon their trade, we would do well to examine this human/nature interaction within its cultural dimensions. Since people have been using animals for such a long time, suppressing that use will not save them from extinction. One possible alternative for the recovery of these and other significant species is to turn them into manageable resources by means of traditional farming systems, where they would be raised using both folk and scientific techniques (Fitshugh & Wilhelm 1995). Redford and Robinson (1991) give several examples of wild species that can be exploited as sources of domesticated animals, and also be reared in traditional farming systems. This is already being done in the area of study: there is a greater rhea farm near Feira de Santana where this bird, known locally as ema, is being raised for its feathers, meat and eggs.
If an efficacious conservation programme is to be set up, the traditional knowledge of vanishing cultures must be respected and studied. It is important to pass on the results of such studies to the practitioners, and to educate users and sellers concerning the legal and ecological status of the species they use and trade in. Education, domestication, and the conservation of biological diversity are the most important considerations in devising measures to ensure the local people of permanent and reliable sources of medicine, food, income, and other benefits.

Eraldo Medeiros Costa Neto
Department of Biology
Feira de Santana State University
Km 3, BR 116 CEP 44031 460 Feira de Santana -BA
Brazil
E-mail: eraldont@uefs.br

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professor J.G. Marques for his helpful comments during the preparation of this paper; and Professor T. Calado, Professor W. Leahy, and Professor P. Duarte for the taxonomic identification. I am also indebted to all the informants from Centro de Abastecimento for allowing me to make use of their knowledge of traditional medicine. And finally a word of thanks to all the undergraduates: without their efforts this work would not have been possible.

References - Angeletti, L.R., U. Agrimi, C. Curia, D. French and R. Mariani-Costantini (1992) 'Healing rituals and sacred serpents', The Lancet 340: 223-225.
- Fitshugh, H. and A.E. Wilhelm (1995) 'Value and uses of indigenous livestock breeds in developing nations', pp. 102-116 in M.L Oldfield and J.B. Alcorn (eds) Biodiversity: culture, conservation and ecodevelopment. Michigan: Michigan University Press.
- Huxtable, R.J. (1992) 'The pharmacology of extinction', Journal of Ethnopharmacology 37: 1-11.
- IBAMA (1989) Official list of fauna threatened with extinction in Brazil. Brasília: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis.
- Lovejoy, T.E. (1997) 'Biodiversity: what is it ?', pp. 7-14 in M.L. Reaka-Kudla, D.E. Wilson and E.O. Wilson (eds) Biodiversity II: Understanding and protecting our biological resources. Washington, D C: Joseph Henry Press.
- Marques, J.G.W. (1994) 'A fauna medicinal dos índios Kuna de San Blás (Panamá) e a hipótese da universalidade zooterápica'. Paper presented at the 46 th Annual Meeting of the Brazilian Society for the Progress of Science. Vitória (Brazil): Espírito Santo Federal University.
- Marques, J.G.W. (1997) 'Fauna medicinal: recurso do ambiente ou ameaça à biodiversidade?' Mutum 1(1): 4.
- Redford, K.H. and J.G. Robinson (eds) (1991) Neotropical wildlife use and conservation. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
- Rosner, F. (1992) 'Pigeons as a remedy (segulah) for jaundice', New York State Journal of Medicine 92(5): 189-192.
- Weiss, H.B. (1947) 'Entomological medicaments of the past', Journal of the New York Entomological Society 55: 155-168.