Indigenous Knowledge and Development
Monitor, July 1999 Indigenous Knowledge and Development
Monitor, July 1999
Contents IK Monitor (7-2) | IKDM Homepage | Suggestions to: ikdm@nuffic.nl | © copyright Nuffic-CIRAN and contributors 1999.
Indigenous knowledge of miombo trees in Morogoro, Tanzania
by E. Munyanziza and K. F. Wiersum
In forestry policy and theory there is increasing interest in altering the orientation of forest management from state-controlled and professional to community forestry management, making use of indigenous knowledge and skills. This article stresses the need to re-examine the knowledge of forestry and agriculture among the people. This will highlight the dynamics and limitations of what local people know, and help us to decide when and how to make use of indigenous knowledge in forest management.
The miombo woodlands of southern Africa provide a large variety of inputs to the livelihoods of rural people. Because of the heavy dependence of local people on these forests, there is growing interest in reorienting miombo management practices, from the conventional approach based on state control and professional management by the forest service, to community forest management. This new approach should be aimed at meeting a multiplicity of local needs and devolving responsibility for forest management to local institutions (Campbell et al. 1996; Dewees 1996). Several studies have indicated that in the miombo region local people are already actively engaged in managing forest resources ( Shepherd 1992; Clarke 1994; Kajembe 1994; Campbell et al. 1996). These management practices are a good example of indigenous knowledge pertaining to forest resources. It has been posited that community forest development should concentrate on using and strengthening this indigenous knowledge (Dewees 1996; see also Van Leeuwen 1998). The present article sets out to assess the indigenous knowledge of forest resources by focusing on the farmers and traders of the miombo woodlands of Tanzania. It examines the dynamics, variety and limitations of forest knowledge, on the basis of a survey of 13 villages in Morogoro District (Tanzania) and centres on the potential use of indigenous knowledge in stimulating community forestry.
Miombo: diversity under threat
In the miombo woodlands there is a
natural diversity of trees, providing the local population with a wide
variety of products, including wood, fuel, fruits, fodder and medicinal
products (Clarke 1994; Campbell et al. 1996). Due to their importance
for the local people, several of these tree species are retained when
forests are reclaimed for agricultural production, and certain indigenous
miombo trees are even planted by the local people. This was illustrated
by Kajembe (1994) in the case of Dodomo district, which is adjacent to
Morogoro and displays similar geographical characteristics (see map: Morogoro District).
Kajembe documented 18 indigenous tree species that were
retained on croplands, and 11 indigenous tree species that were expressly
planted. All of these were multifunctional trees providing wood and
non-wood products and often specific environmental services such as shade.
There are also miombo tree species that are commercially exploited. The
most important of the hardwood species in Tanzania are Iroko (trade
name) (Milicia excelsa); Mkora (Afzelia quanzensis);
Muninga (Pterocarpus angolensis); white mahogany (Khaya
anthotheca); and the African ebony (Dalbergia melanoxylon). These
valuable hardwood species are currently threatened by the combined forces of
exploitation and forest degradation due to forest fires, grazing and
forest reclamation. To prevent further decline, the Tanzanian government has
granted them the status of protected trees, which means that they cannot
be cut down without government permission, even if they are on crop
lands. Indeed, there are several farms where adult trees still stand,
testifying to the former presence of miombo woodlands.
Recognizing seeds
During a study devoted to regeneration
techniques for the five above mentioned hardwood species in Morogoro
district, it was found that most seedlings were unintentionally destroyed during the process of land
preparation and weeding. Farmers apparently mistook the seedlings for
shrubs or weeds (Munyanziza et al. 1997). And yet there was
evidence that the adult trees were valued by the local people, and this gave
rise to plans to study their knowledge of the trees in the stages prior
to the fully grown state. A survey was carried out which focused on areas of
the Morogoro district which were previously covered with miombo
woodlands but which now contain only pockets of trees, or specimens in a
very degraded state. Interviews were held with 627 individuals living in
13 villages, and 189 traders at 21 timber stations in the area, in order
to determine whether they recognized the seeds/pods and seedlings of these
five species, and whether they knew that the species were legally
protected.
The results of the survey are presented in two tables. Table 1 shows that those interviewed were most familiar with the
seeds/pods of Muninga, Mkora, and White mahogany, and with the seedlings
of White mahogany and the Iroko. It should be noted, however, that only
6-10% of all respondents recognized the seeds/pods or the seedlings of
the best-known species. The highest scores were recorded for single
characteristics; less than 5% of the respondents recognized two or all
three features of a species.
Table 1. Number of local farmers (out of 627 respondents) with a knowledge of different aspects of miombo hardwoods
| Species | Trade name or name in English | S | Sl | P | S&SL | Sl&P | S&Sl&P |
| Afzelia quanzensis | Mkora | 55 | 14 | 24 | 9 | 7 | 7 |
| Dalbergia melanoxylon | African ebony | 3 | 14 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
| Khaya anthotheca | White mahogany | 46 | 50 | 105 | 18 | 11 | 11 |
| Milicia excelsa | Iroko | 1 | 38 | 96 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Pterocarpus angolensis | Muninga | 61 | 8 | 90 | 7 | 4 | 4 |
S = seed; Sl = seedling; P = protected species
Table 2. Percentage of local farmers (LF) and timber dealers (TD) with a knowledge of different aspects of miombo hardwoods
| Species | Trade name or name in English | Seeds | Seedlings | Protected status | |||
| LF | TD | LF | TD | LF | TD | ||
| Afzelia quanzensis | Mkora | 8.7 | 0.5 | 2.2 | 0 | 3.8 | 2.6 |
| Dalbergia melanoxylon | African ebony | 0.4 | 0.5 | 2.2 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.1 |
| Khaya anthotheca | White mahogany | 7.3 | 7.4 | 8.0 | 11.1 | 16.7 | 29.1 |
| Milicia excelsa | Iroko | 0.1 | 2.1 | 6.1 | 5.8 | 15.3 | 33.3 |
| Pterocarpus angolensis | Muninga | 9.7 | 5.8 | 12.8 | 0 | 14.4 | 7.9 |
Table 2 shows that the knowledge of timber traders is comparable to that of farmers. On the whole, farmers scored better when it came to recognizing seeds and seedlings, notably those of Muninga and Mkora. Traders, on the other hand, were more aware of the protected status of the species, with the exception of Muninga, where local farmers scored much higher than the traders. Nevertheless, the findings suggest that amongst farmers and traders alike there is only limited indigenous knowledge of the regenerative features of valuable miombo hardwood species. This contrasts with other findings indicating that local people are actively cultivating indigenous tree species. In seeking an explanation for this paradox, it may be helpful to identify the types of knowledge required for forest management.
|
Knowledges required for forest management Forest management involves the utilization of several kinds of knowledge:
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Utilizing knowledge
With respect to botanical knowledge, a
distinction must be made between an individual's knowledge of mature
trees and his knowledge of regenerative material. As is clear from the
survey, local people have no trouble identifying the valuable miombo
hardwood species when they are growing in the forests: such mature trees may
be recognized by their tree architecture, characteristic bark, leaves,
and/or inflorescence and fruits. Local people are also well aware of the
timber qualities of these species. However, this does not mean that they
are also able to recognize the seeds or seedlings of these species.
Seedlings of many species take on a different appearance as they pass
through the various stages of development (Swaine 1996). Morever,
several young seedlings of miombo species undergo seasonal changes, dying
back during the dry season and reappearing again in the rainy season
(Munyanziza & Oldeman 1995). This complicates seedling identification
even by professionals. As for ecological and technical knowledge, its
relevance for the development of various kinds depends on the
availability of resources and the intensity of forest management. Where
ample natural forests are present which make possible natural
regeneration, indigenous forest management is often restricted to defining
user rights and protecting the existing forest resources (Arnold &
Dewees 1995). In such cases it is not necessary to stimulate regeneration
and thus no need for local people to recognize seeds and seedlings. And
yet in those areas where scarce forest resources require the active
stimulation of tree regeneration, as in the area surveyed here, this type
of knowledge is essential. In the case of organizational knowledge, the
rights of local people to use the commercial hardwoods are limited by
their status as protected species. Even though the survey indicates that
awareness of this protected status is relatively low, it may still act
as a disincentive to grow these trees.
Value
In addition to knowledge, there is another aspect
involved in forest management. It has been shown that farmers' perceptions
of the value of a tree is one of the decisive factors in the
intensification of forest management, alongside the degree to which the
valued tree resources are accessible (Arnold & Dewees 1995; Campbell et al. 1996).
Management is likely to be intensified in order to maintain supplies of
valuable tree products, should that access decline, and to meet growing
commercial demands. The findings of Kajembe (1994) show that the cultivated
species in the neighbouring Dodoma district are largely multi-purpose
species, which are used primarily for household rather than commercial
purposes. Such cultivation apparently has a higher priority than the
cultivation of hardwood species for commercial use. Thus it would appear
that the combined effects of the relatively low household value of
hardwoods, combined with their legal status, has limited farmers'
experimentation with these species after it became clear that they were
becoming scarce. As a result, there was no development of indigenous
knowledge with respect to their artificial regeneration.
Four IFM stages
It has been hypothesized, that there are four
separate stages in indigenous forest management (IFM): controlled
utilization, protection/ maintenance of valuable tree resources, stimulation
of the production of valued tree products, and purposeful regeneration
(Wiersum 1997). The various stages differ not only in the intensity of
management practices, but also with respect to the kinds of knowledge
involved. This is shown in Table 3, where we see that the artificial
regeneration of trees involves the recognition of seeds and seedlings,
but also a knowledge of how to raise seedlings. It is also important to note
the significant variations between tree species in this respect. Some
species are relatively easy to propagate, due to their strong
regenerative powers. Others are characterized by specialized regeneration
strategies, such as the development of an extensive root system before
shoot growth, or association with mycorrhiza (Munyanziza 1994; Munyanziza
& Oldeman 1996). It is interesting to note that many of the miombo
species which are already being grown by local farmers belong to the first
category, while all five hardwood species studied belong to the latter
category.
Discussion
Forest resource management requires different kinds
of botanical, ecological and technical knowledge, depending on the intensity of management. For this
reason, indigenous knowledge pertaining to forest management should not be
regarded as static: it gradually evolves during the process of
intensification of forest management. Management intensity is not the same
for all tree species, but will depend on their value to local people,
the rights of use for each species and whether they are easy or difficult to
manage. Consequently, much indigenous knowledge pertaining to forest
management is not generic, but species-specific. Most of the protected
timber trees of Tanzania are ecologically related to mature woodlands.
They have long been the trees of the wild, regenerating naturally. These
trees held their own in the woodlands as long as there was plenty of
land, and the population remained limited. Large-scale deforestation in
the miombo woodlands has brought about considerable changes in the
vegetative landscape. Today one occasionally encounters isolated,
commercially valuable indigenous trees. Although these trees are
commercially traded, they are less valuable to local villagers than
multipurpose species. Moreover, due to their specific ecological strategies
(Munyanziza & Oldeman 1996) they are relatively difficult to
cultivate. In Morogoro district these factors have hindered the
development of indigenous knowledge with respect to their artificial
regeneration.
Implications
The limited knowledge of protected hardwood
species on the part of farmers and traders has negative implications for
their propagation and survival in agroforestry systems. Under the
prevailing conditions it is unlikely that indigenous knowledge
pertaining to the artificial regeneration of the miombo hardwood species
will develop further. And as natural ecosystems are replaced by
artificial ones, that will become even less likely. Even now the
majority of Africans have never seen-- and may never see--a natural tropical
forest.
This leads to the conclusion that one cannot rely on indigenous
knowledge when it comes to community involvement in the conservation of the
full biodiversity of the miombo woodlands, which is precisely what is at
stake here. Making use of indigenous knowledge may be quite successful in
the short term, for example in maintaining multipurpose tree species
which are valuable to local households. However, to stimulate more
intensive management practices for the conservation of tree species,
specialized ecological strategies will have to be introduced, in the form of
purposefully protected woodlands or newly developed agroforestry
systems.
E. Munyanziza
Miombo Afforestation Centre For Research in
Environmental Sciences and Training (MACFOREST)
P.O. Box 3161
Chuo
Kikuu Morogoro
Tanzania
K.F. Wiersum
Sub-department of Forestry
Wageningen
Agricultural University
P.O. Box 342
6700 AH Wageningen
The
Netherlands
Tel.: +31-317-482 545.
Fax : +31-317-483 542.
E-mail:
freerk.wiersum@bhhk.bosb.wau.nl
Acknowledgements
This study has been generously sponsored by
the International Foundation for Science. The authors gratefully
acknowledge the cooperation of the Sokoine University of Agriculture and
the local people interviewed.
References
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management in farmer strategies. Responses to agricultural intensification.
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- Campbell, B. (ed.) (1996)
The Miombo in transition: woodlands and welfare in Africa. Bogor,
Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).
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J. (1994) Building on indigenous natural resource management: forestry
practices in Zimbabwe's communal lands. Harare, Zimbabwe: Forestry
Commission.
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Netherlands: Wageningen Agricultural University.
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Miombo trees and mycorrhizae, ecological strategies, a basis for
afforestation. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, the
Netherlands.
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Applied Soil Ecology 6: 77-85.
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(1996) 'Miombo trees: ecological strategies, silviculture and
management', Ambio 25: 454-458.
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- Wiersum, K.F. (1997) 'Indigenous exploitation and management of tropical
forest resources: an evolutionary continuum in forest-people
interactions', Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 63:
1-16.
- See also Forest management at 'Websites'
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