IK Monitor Articles (8-2)

Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor, July 2000

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Ethnoveterinary healing practices of Fulani pastoralists in Cameroon: combining the natural and the supernatural

by Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, Ngeh J. Toyang, Sali Django, Christopher Ndi, and Clare Wirmum

The role of indigenous knowledge in sustainable agricultural production in developing countries is beginning to gain recognition within scientific circles. However, the usefulness of supernatural practices for the treatment of disease is still controversial. A careful analysis of supernatural healing practices used by Fulani pastoralists reveals that some of these practices are routinely applied in animal health management. Recognition of the potential contribution of supernatural healing practices could permit a more objective scientific assessment of the effectiveness of many indigenous systems.

One of the most important elements of indigenous knowledge systems and practices is human and animal health care. Many of these practices fall into the category of 'religio-magico' or 'religio-medico' healing. Worldwide, there are a wide variety of supernatural practices designed to cure or prevent disease. See, for example, Mathias (1994), who presents an extensive literature review pertaining to supernatural cures for infectious diseases, treating and preventing dog and snake bites, warding off and casting out evil spirits, and preventing witchcraft, spells, and theft. The problem with these practices is that they are not well understood, due to the secrecy and the lack of specific information.

This article deals with ethnoveterinary medicine. The supernatural animal healing practices now in use in various parts of the world have been passed down from one generation to the next by word of mouth. McCorkle (1986) discusses the use of incantations in combination with talismans, fetishes and such practices as hanging bouquets of leaves on animals (to ward off disease). Here, too, the lack of information stands in the way of a good understanding of these methods. There are three reasons why it is important to understand the supernatural aspects of folk veterinary systems (McCorkle 1986). The first is 'diplomatic'. If those involved in ethnoveterinary research and development (ERD) ignore, belittle or worse still, unwittingly offend indigenous ideology, their work is not likely to succeed. Second, supernatural healing practices may in fact embody practical veterinary and management acumen that can dictate appropriate curative or preventive action. Third, extension efforts can then build directly upon an understanding of the supernatural in folk veterinary systems. In this way, useful management techniques can be reinforced and new skills introduced into a cultural idiom that makes sense to livestock owners (McCorkle 1986). To understand these practices, one must know exactly what they entail. However, the problem here is that such knowledge is hard to come by. In the project on which the present article is based-the Heifer Project International (HPI) supported ethnoveterinary medicine project in the Northwest province of Cameroon-we found out why. Pastoralists advanced three reasons. First, people often adopt a mocking or otherwise negative attitude towards such practices. Second, many graziers see no advantage in allowing the documentation of their indigenous knowledge, since such projects are often ends in themselves, rather than part of long-term, integrated development projects. And third, in Islam there are very strict regulations on supernatural healing practices, and ethnoveterinarians seldom reveal such information to individuals (especially non-Moslems). The ethnovet project won the trust and confidence of smallholder livestock breeders, thanks mainly to the fact that HPI has provided assistance to them and other pastoralists for over 15 years. As a result we were able to document this knowledge for the first time. We will begin with a few observations about the terminology.

Religio-magico?
We prefer the phrase 'natural and supernatural healing' to the commonly used 'religio-magico healing', which emphasizes the least tangible aspects of these ethnoveterinary practices. In any case, we suggest that since such treatments combine the use of natural products and faith, they are more accurately described as religio-medico. Combined natural and supernatural healing beliefs and practices figure in folk veterinary and human medicine systems worldwide. The natural aspect involves the use of materia-medica from plant or animal sources, while the supernatural aspect includes prayers, incantations, and other actions portraying psychic interactions and a faith in the healing power of talismans, bouquets and other fetishes.

Documentation of knowledge
The ethnoveterinary medicine project in the Northwest province of Cameroon, set up with the assistance of the Heifer Project, documented the natural and supernatural healing practices of Fulani pastoralists for the first time in the history of Cameroon (Nuwanyakpa et al. 1990; Toyang et al. 1995).
Over 150 livestock breeders in all seven divisions of the Northwest Province, ranging in age from 35 to 110, were interviewed independently over a five-year period (1990-1996), using open-ended interviews and guided-dialogue techniques. The survey team comprised veterinarians, botanists, agricultural extensionists and skilled translators. The interviews were conducted mainly in the breeders' local language and occasionally in Pidgin English. Informants were visited in their own localities and interviewed about their knowledge of animal diseases, their methods of diagnosis, what treatments they used, and how they used them. They were asked about the local names of diseases and livestock conditions, and the local names of the plants and other components they used for treating diseases and other conditions. The informants also explained the parts of plants used, the preparation and mode of application, and whether the plants were used alone or in combination with other indigenous components (e.g., animal parts, honey, salt and comestible soil). Systematic efforts were made to identify the breeders' diagnostic knowledge on each disease or condition. The treatment procedures-both curative and prophylactic-which were known to each breeder were then discussed and documented. Following the interviews, plant collection trips were arranged, where appropriate, and the collected specimens were processed (pressed, dried, mounted, taxonomically classified, and labelled). The herbarium specimens have been preserved for reference at the HPI/Cameroon office.
Since the information given by the breeders was oral, it was expected that some issues might inadvertently be forgotten, while other points might need to be clarified and refined. Workshops were therefore held during which the diagnostic information given by breeders on each disease or condition was carefully discussed. Breeders debated, clarified and refined the information, while 'expert consultation' workshops were also held for the most experienced breeders, during which conventional veterinarians clarified the information on diagnosis and treatment procedures. The veterinarians used the diagnostic information on each disease or condition to match the scientific (or 'modern') veterinary name to each problem.
The information provided by breeders was extremely detailed, due to their in-depth knowledge and their dual role as livestock breeders and indigenous veterinarians. This information, which is presented here in the form of a table (see Table), involved the documentation of indigenous knowledge pertaining to the diagnosis and treatment of poultry (20), rabbits (25), sheep and goats (30), horses (30) and cattle (60). Combined natural and supernatural healing practices are commonly used in the treatment and prevention of various cattle diseases and conditions. The table contains details of some of these procedures, giving examples of curative and preventive supernatural healing treatments for ten specific ailments or diseases, ranging from mastitis to heartwater. The information was obtained from 60 of the 150 breeders interviewed.

Remarks
Most of the treatments recorded here have a natural component, in the form of a plant or animal part. Plants form the main ingredient in African traditional medicine, not only because they often possess biologically active chemicals, but also because they are believed to provide vital energy, and are a participatory rather than a lifeless entity in healing (Iwu 1993).
All the supernatural healing practices used by Fulani indigenous veterinarians are accompanied by prayers taken from the Koran and the Haddiths (i.e. the Traditions of the prophet Mohamed). These are usually said in Arabic, although certain prayers are recited in a unique brand of Fulfulde, the language of the Fulani people. The signs and sounds that accompany the prayers may consist of a word, a phrase or a diagram, and are known as incantations. Prayers and practices connected with supernatural healing are often performed discreetly and in private.
Given that the particulars of the various plant and animal components are seldom revealed, the 'mores code' of supernatural healing practices is known only to a few, usually older, members of each family. Perhaps this can be explained by the traditional African belief that everything animate or inanimate has a sort of spirit or power within it, a life force that can only be properly harnessed and utilized by the knowledgeable and the initiated (Iwu 1993). In addition, the practice of not revealing such information on a large scale serves to preserve its uniqueness to the given family. In this sense, it may be seen as a form of 'social patenting' of ethnoveterinary practices. In any case, the practice guarantees the authenticity of these supernatural healing practices. There is a unique set of prayers and practices for each type of disease, and each succeeding generation of health care practitioners within a given family recite the same prayers and perform the same rituals as the preceding generations.

Conclusion
In this article we have presented a selection of ethnoveterinary supernatural healing practices, in an effort to document them and to provide some insight into the way they are used. This was made more difficult by the fact that direct cause-and-effect analyses are often lacking. For this reason we would like to stress that some practices which are labelled 'magico-religio' are in fact a combination of natural and supernatural practices. A vast majority of supernatural healing methods and other ethnoveterinary practices depend on medicinal plants. Plants are known to be natural chemical factories and some of the chemicals produced may have medicinal properties. The actual healing may be due to the use of medicinal plants in combination with natural and supernatural healing practices, and this makes the specific treatments popular within the community. For example, one of the treatments listed in the table above utilizes a plant known locally as babaaho (Indigofera spicata; trailing or pink indigo) for the treatment of mastitis. Researchers have shown that some species of the genus Indigofera have both antibacterial (Dahot Mu 1999) and anti-inflammatory (Amala Bhaskar et al. 1982) qualities that are important in the control of mastitis. Therefore, the line between natural and supernatural treatments of diseases may be very thin (McCorkle 1986).
The validation of the efficacy of religio-medico practices is beyond the scope of this paper. Our purpose was to document these hitherto oral indigenous knowledge systems. Even though the validation of the effectiveness of supernatural healing has long been seen as a waste of time and resources by most researchers, at present there are a number of scientists and spiritual healing enthusiasts who are keen to determine the role of alternative medicine in healing (Brown 2000; Abbot 2000). We hope that animal health researchers will soon follow the example of human medicine and embark on validation studies involving alternative veterinary therapies.

Ngeh J. Toyang
Heifer Project International
1015 Louisiana Street
Little Rock
AR 72202, USA
Tel.: +1-501-376 6836
Fax: +1-501-376 8906
E-mail: ntoyang@sunset.backbone.olemiss.edu
(Corresponding Author)

Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa
Plan International
B.P 25236 Messa, Yaounde
Cameroon
Tel.: +237-21-54-58
Fax: +237-21-54-57
E-mail: nuwanyakpa@yahoo.com

Dr Christopher Ndi and Mr. Sali Django
Institute for Agricultural Research and Development (IRAD)
Bambui Station
P.O. Box 51
Bamenda
Cameroon
Tel.: +237-36 36 73

Dr Wirmum Clare Kinyuy
Medicinal Foods and Plants (MEFOPLA) Referral Research Center
P.O. Box 5164
Nkwen, Bamenda
Cameroon
Tel.: +237-363135

Acknowledgments
We are very grateful to all the members of the HPI Council of Experts on Indigenous Knowledge, who have allowed their hitherto secret information to be recorded for the purposes of this project. All HPI staff are commended for their participation in the many activities which led to the development of this project. Our thanks go also to PVO/NGO/NRMS, GEF/NGO/SGP Projects and HPI Headquarters, who provided funds for the implementation of this project. Out thanks go also to the management of the Cameroon Institute for Agricultural Research (IRAD).

References
Abbot, N.C. (2000) 'Healing as a therapy for human diseases: A systematic review', J. Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2: 159-169.

Brown, C.K. (2000) 'Methodological problems of clinical research into spiritual healing: The healer's perspective', J. Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2: 171-176.

Amala Bhaskar, E.; N. Ganga, R. Arivudainambi, and G. Santhanam (1982) 'Anti-inflammatory activity of Indigofera aspalathoides Vahl.', Indian Journal of Med Res. 76 Suppl: 115-118.

Iwu, M.M. (1993) 'Healing and the African culture', in: Handbook of African medicinal plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 309-342.

Mathias, M.E. (1994) 'Magic, myth and medicine', Economic Botany 48(1): 3-7.

McCorkle, C.M. (1986) 'An introduction to ethnoveterinary research and development', Journal of Ethnobiology 129:129-149.

Dahot Mu (1999) 'Antibacterial and antifungal activity of small protein of Indigofera oblongifolia leaves', J. Ethnopharmacology 64(3): 277-282.

Nuwanyakpa, M.; J. Devries, C. Ndi and S. Django (1990) Traditional veterinary medicine in Cameroon: A Renaissance in an ancient indigenous technology. An HPI/Cameroon Publication.

Toyang, N.J.; M. Nuwanyakpa, S. Django, C. Ndi and C.K. Wirmum (1995) 'Ethnoveterinary medicine practices in the Northwest Province of Cameroon'. Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor Vol. 3(3): 20-22.

PHOTOS
1 Ethnoveterinarian Ardo Umaru in the village of Bainjong, Fundong holding Koran literature (left hand) and dipping a pen in Arabic ink (right hand).
Photo: Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, 1995

2 The ethnovet writing a phrase from the Koran on a Koranic board.
Photo: Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, 1995

3 Assisted by Alhaji Buba, ethnovet Ardo Amaru washes the written phrase into a calabash bowl.
Photo: Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, 1995

4 A calf being treated with an ethnoveterinarian drug, and the phrase from the Koran washing.
Photo: Dr Mopoi Nuwanyakpa, 1995

Map of the Republic of Cameroon

Websites that may interest readers of this article.