Indigenous Knowledge and
Development Monitor, March 2001 Indigenous Knowledge and
Development Monitor, March 2001
Contents IK Monitor (9-1) | IKDM Homepage | Suggestions to: ikdm@nuffic.nl | © copyright Nuffic-CIRAN and contributors 2001.
March, Candida, Ines Smyth, and Maitrayee Mukhopadhyay (1999) A guide to
gender-analysis frameworks. Oxfam Skills and Practices Series. 144 pp. ISBN
0-8-5598-403-1. GBP 6.95; USD 11.95. Oxfam GB, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7DZ,
United Kingdom.
Fax: +44-1865-312 245.
In working with indigenous knowledge for sustainable development, researchers and practitioners should be aware of the gender aspect that runs through all the problems they are trying to solve. This is perhaps best done by adopting a conceptual framework right from the start. Such gender-analysis frameworks or methodologies are a combination of related concepts and selected observation tools. A classic framework is the Harvard Analytical Frame. It focuses on women's/men's activities and their access to and control over material resources and benefits, thus providing a clear picture of gender divisions in labour. Other frameworks have been developed to meet the more practical, strategic or political needs of users or policy planners.
A guide to gender-analysis frameworks explores some of the best-known analytical frameworks for gender-sensitive research and planning. Based on a pack developed for Oxfam staff and partners in 1996, it was written by an experienced gender development project officer, together with gender advisers. The editors have incorporated into this edition feedback from Oxfam staff, consultants, and individuals.
The book examines eight frameworks: Harvard Analytical Framework; People-Oriented Planning Framework; Moser Framework, Gender Policy and Planning Program; Gender Analysis Matrix; Capacities and Vulnerability Analysis Framework; Women's Empowerment (Longwe) Framework; and Social Relations Approach. The background and aims of each framework are discussed, and a case study is provided. In the commentary, the editors discuss potential uses, advantages, limitations and adaptations of the framework. There is no closing chapter where all the various methodologies are discussed, compared and evaluated. It will be clear that the framework which a researcher or practitioner chooses will depend on the specific circumstances. To help the reader make his choice, however, the authors discuss this aspect in the introductory chapter, and provide a list of 10 questions readers should ask themselves. For example, to what extent does the framework incorporate an analysis of social relations which goes beyond issues of gender?
The discussion on usefulness is best summarized by quoting the authors: 'Gender frameworks are useful if they help you think through your own way of planning and doing things.' To my view, however, the most useful framework of all those discussed in the guide is the Moser Framework. This methodology aims to set up 'gender planning' as a type of planning in its own right. It is not a purely technical approach, but also has political significance. Planning is seen as transformatory. Short-term, practical needs must be addressed in a way which facilitates a more balanced relationship between men and women in the long term. The Moser Framework, like the Harvard Analytical Framework, emphasizes the separate activities of men and women rather than the connection of the two. Moser's definition of strategic gender needs is easy for users to consider women only.
Another useful framework is the Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM), designed specifically for community-based development work. It is a bottom-up participatory tool for planning, designing, monitoring and evaluating projects at the community level. The methodology analyses four kinds of impact (labour, time, resource and culture) at four levels of society (women, men, household and community). It is both technical and transformatory, not only focusing on gender relations between women and men, but also examining the specific experiences of each category.
This guide can be very helpful in selecting a framework for gender-sensitive research projects and in designing interventions which address gender inequalities and women's empowerment. However, I do have some reservations. First of all, as it was originally intended for use by Oxfam staff and partners, the scope is somewhat limited. Thus there is no mention of indigenous knowledge, whereas all IK is related to gender issues -- although not all gender issues are related to IK. In any case, I suspect they did not mention it because it is not part of the working mandate of Oxfam. Another limitation of the guide is its incompleteness. The gender analysis frameworks listed do not go far enough. The actual conceptual framework you choose will depend upon on what kind of research you are doing and what kind of problems you are trying to solve. For example, if the researchers and practitioners are dealing with problems concerned with IK or farming research, then the framework and tools must be related to those concepts.
One last critical note: the guide does not have a proper index. The index provided on page 133-144 is confusing and obscure. This limits the practical usefulness of the guide, since there are many overlapping concepts. Moreover, a good index should be in alphabetical order.
(Yang Fang, Centre for Integrated Agricultural Development (CIAD), China Agricultural University, Beijing, P.R. China. E-mail: yangf@mail.cau.edu.cn)
Mazzucato, Valentina and David Niemeijer (2000) Rethinking soil and water
conservation in a changing society: a case study in eastern Burkina Faso.
Tropical Resource Management Papers N° 32. 380 pp. ISBN 90-6754-596-1. Free on
request to readers in developing countries; other readers NLG 40 (postage
included). Contact: Wageningen University and Research Centre, Department of
Environmental Sciences, Erosion and Soil and Water Conservation Group, Nieuwe
Kanaal 11, 6709 PA Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Fax: +31-317-484 759.
Valentina Mazzucato is an economist specializing in anthropology, while David Niemeijer is an environmental geographer. They graduated summa cum laude with this joint study.
The book is a valuable contribution to indigenous knowledge (IK) research into erosion and soil conservation. It points out that soil and water conservation is a complex issue in need of an integrated approach. By recasting both the problem (land degradation) and the solution (soil and water conservation interventions), it opens up new perspectives. The resulting study is a genuine breakthrough that explodes many of the myths surrounding land use in West Africa. In eastern Burkina Faso, instead of the familiar scenario of land degradation and declining soil fertility, falling productivity, diminishing rainfall and a growing population, Mazzucato and Niemeijer found, alongside the same population and rainfall problems, maintained soil fertility and rising productivity. Agriculture in the region has been able to keep up with the needs of a growing population. In fact, Mazzucato and Niemeijer show that farmers react to changing social, economic and environmental circumstances by adapting their agricultural practices and the associated social relations to make their systems more productive and sustainable.
The book comprises two parts with nine chapters. Part One discusses the analytical framework and methods. Chapter 1 presents the approach used, based on three elements: working in an interdisciplinary manner, using a grounded theory, and focusing on a relationship of mutual trust so that villagers and their views can be heard. Chapter 2 presents the analytical framework emerging from the grounded theory methodology. It then discusses the most influential soil and water conservation theories, followed by an explanation of which elements have been used in the analytical framework. Part One ends with Chapter 3, which discusses the research methods used to put approach and theory into practice. The second part of the book basically presents chapters that aim to answer the three main research questions: What evidence is there of land degradation? How do people go about conserving soil and water? Why do people conserve soil and water in the way that they do?
Chapter 4 introduces the research area, examining its social history since the late 19th century. The study took place in two villages in the eastern region of Burkina Faso and focused on the Gourmantché system of agriculture. Chapter 5 deals with long-term environmental change and presents a multi-scale analysis of the indicators and proxies normally used to explain land degradation trends. Chapter 6 takes an IK approach to soil and water conservation technologies. In addition to describing the technologies, it looks at farmers' theories of soil formation and degradation processes and their own roles within these processes as land-users. Chapter 7 explains local economic concepts that influence allocation decisions in agriculture. Chapter 8 looks at how social institutions and the changes they undergo affect agriculture in the study region. The last chapter of Part Two pulls the different parts of the analysis together to explain the absence of land degradation in the region. Finally, the two authors translate the conclusions from this case study into theory. The study suggests that forms of intensification in African production systems can best be understood through analytical frameworks that focus on the interplay of social and environmental histories, rather than assuming a simple trend towards increasing land degradation.
Overall, this book brings new insights to IK research and plays a key role in sustainable land management. The scope of the study is narrow, but further research may test its approach in other settings. The study provides a good example of an analytical framework and how it can be operationalized, leading to innovative perspectives on African land-use systems. It will be of interest to anyone with a concern for sustainable land management, and I would strongly recommend it to students, researchers and extension workers active in this field.
(Basga E. Dialla, PhD, Rural Sociologist, Director of BURCIK and Head of the Socioeconomic and Anthropology Department at INSS/CNRST, Ougadougou, Burkina Faso. E-mail: emile_dialla@yahoo.fr)
Mosha, R. Sambuli (2000) Heartbeat of indigenous Africa: a study of the Chagga educational system. Indigenous Knowledge Schooling Series No. 3. 250 pp. ISBN 0-8153-3464-8 (hard cover). USD 65. Garland Publishing, 29 W 35th Street, NY 10001 New York 2299 USA, Toll-free fax: +1-800-248-4724. E-mail: cserv@routledge-ny.com
In The heartbeat of indigenous Africa, R. Sambuli Mosha reflects on the urgent necessity to radically improve the educational programs in Tanzania and in Africa. Inspired by the wit and wisdom of the indigenous Chagga educational system, Dr Mosha contends that for a programme to be truly educational in Tanzania or anywhere else for that matter, it should be holistic and unrelenting in its quest to educate the entire person: body, mind, and spirit. He gives a comprehensive description of the Chagga schooling process and its fundamental virtues, and proposes that modern education should also give equal emphasis to spiritual development and intellectual growth.
Underlying the content of the six chapters are two indigenous concepts, of Imanya and Ipvunda which express the heartbeat of a healthy society and the interconnectedness between life in the community and the knowledge that exists within and beyond it. In this analysis, the rapport between local and global, and between community and nation, is made manifest. African communities, as they struggle to make sense of recent political and economic changes, face unavoidable dilemmas. Modern African school systems should therefore allow and encourage parents, family members and communities to participate more fully in education and to contribute particularly in the area of values.This means helping to develop curricula and hiring administrators and teachers of virtue who deeply appreciate the virtuous life. There needs to be continual discussion between teachers, families, representatives of the local community, religious leaders, and students. Together they should explore how the divided education systems left behind by the Englisch, French and Portuguese can be made whole again, and how communities can recover their indigenous knowledge and make it part of the education system, thus correcting its deficiencies.
Different ways of seeing can illuminate problems in unique ways. To understand the nature of indigenous knowledge and put it to academic use is obviously not easy, but this is central to the future of education. There is a complex dynamic at work in the study of indigenous knowledge. As Mosha says in The heartbeat of indigenous Africa, indigenous knowledge is not a monolithic entity. The Chagga and other societies have developed differing systems of education, agriculture, health care, food preparation, spirituality, etc. Scholars have found that indigenous knowledge and practices are sometimes similar from one place and time to the next, and sometimes are not.
Generalizations about the nature of indigenous knowledge must therefore be carefully considered and offered with caution. How are different cultural perspectives incorporated into other ways of seeing and other systems for producing knowledge? Can the indigenous confrontation with the Western paradigm help bring about a profound modification of Western perspectives? We know that no cultures exist in a pristine, uncontaminated state and that some form of cultural interaction is always taking place. Cultures regenerate themselves. How then do we explain the persistence of such distinctive cultural traditions? Western students of indigenous knowledge and the advocates of incorporating this knowledge into the Western curriculum must address these fundamental issues. Otherwise they run the risk of being simplistic in their applications of indigenous knowledge in the Western context. Again, however, the aim should not be to reach an absolute definition of the best way to produce knowledge.
(Ladislaus M. Semali, Associate Professor of Education and Director Interinstitutional Consortium for Indigenous Knowledge (ICIK), Pennsylvania State University, USA. E-mail: lms11@psu.edu)
Overton, John and Regina Scheyvens (eds) (1999) Strategies for sustainable
development. Experiences from the Pacific. 306 pp. ISBN 1-8-5649-642-2. GBP
16.95; USD 27.50. Zed Books, 7 Cynthia Street, London N1 9JF, United Kingdom, or
165 First Avenue, Atlantic Highlands, NJ 07716, USA.
Fax: +44-207-833 3960.
E-mail: sales@zedbooks.demon.co.uk
The editors, John Overton and Regina Scheyvens, have a background in Development Studies and years of experience working in the field of rural transformation and women's organizations. They have worked in the Solomon Islands, Fiji, and Papua New Guinea, and have spent time in Malaysia and several regions of Africa. The two authors' thorough knowledge of the Pacific Islands obviously served as a clear guide while they were editing the book.
The authors, I believe, intended the sections on strategies for sustainable development mainly for educators, planners, community workers, development practitioners, graduates, scholars, women's groups, and church workers. The sections offer them the fundamental knowledge they need for developing strategies in their own areas. The book can be strongly recommended to policy-makers in the Solomon Islands and other Pacific Island nations, where development pressure is great and the prospects for sustainable development are poor for economic and social reasons. I admire the way this book was produced and how it examines all aspects of development in the Pacific.
I would like to congratulate the people from various Pacific Islands who contributed to the book, especially Ms Salome Samou of the Solomon Islands for her contribution on marine resources. Fish, shellfish and other marine resources are the main source of sustenance for many rural communities. But because of their value, fish and other marine resources are being depleted at an alarming rate. It is vital to use the remaining resources in a sustainable manner, and both owners and users should initiate laws for managing and conserving them. The only thing I missed in this important book was attention for indigenous knowledge. The discussion of the Solomon Islands' marine resources, for example, should have included consideration for the rights and knowledge associated with them. Apart from that the book is excellent.
The publication could be a major help to any Pacific government wishing to develop strategies for encouraging development that is sustainable. It clearly describes the main elements of such a strategy and the real objectives that can be achieved if the people of the Pacific conserve the diversity of their region's resources. The book also contains practical information relevant to resource owners at the grassroots level.
In this new millennium 1 , Pacific governments should incorporate commitment to the principles of sustainable development into their constitutions or other fundamental charters for national governance. The book shows how policy that safeguards resources can ensure a country's future livelihoods.
The book has been wonderfully written, and presents its message and its managements strategies from a perspective that small island states will find highly relevant. It is a credit to the authors.
(Moses Sylvester Bariri, Coordinator, Indigenous Peoples Environmental and Cultural Survival, Honiara, Solomon Islands)
Prain G., S. Fujisaka, and M.D. Warren (eds) (1999) Biological and cultural
diversity: the role of indigenous agricultural experimentation in development.
218 pp. ISBN 1-85339-443-2. GBP 14.95. London: Intermediate Technology
Publications Ltd., 103-105 Southampton Row, London WC1B 4HH, United Kingdom.
E-mail: itpubs@itpubs.org.uk
Website: http//www.oneworld.org/itdg/publications.html
This is an impressive collection of 15 case studies written by 23 authors on experimentation by farmers in 17 countries. The introduction contains a long list of recent - and not so recent - references to such experimentation. Why then do so many conventional scientists still doubt whether farmers can carry out meaningful experiments? Many of the experiments described in this book are of the more 'conventional' type, like variety selection, either by farmers on their own or in collaboration with scientists and extensionists. The crops include rice (Nepal, Philippines), maize, pulses and root crops (Southern Philippines, Irian Jaya). Experiments on crop husbandry include crop rotation (maize/mucuna in Mexico) and water management (Sudan). Some chapters deal with less frequently documented topics such as organizational experiments, like those done by farmers' organizations in China or Nigeria. Others look at conceptual issues in indigenous experimentation, such as exploring farmers' concepts of experimentation in Mali, the clash of perceptions between farmers and conservationists in South Africa, the dynamics of indigenous knowledge (illustrated by case studies from both developing and industrialized countries) and, in a case from Nigeria, the process by which the use of external inputs became deeply embedded in indigenous crop husbandry.
The issues being so diverse, it is impossible to do justice to all aspects of this highly interesting book in such a short review. Indeed, many chapters would merit a review on their own 2 . Several contributions differentiate between technical experiments that can be done by a farmer independently (e.g. variety selection) and 'social experiments' that require the collaboration of neighbours, a whole village or an even larger group, such as for water harvesting, watershed management and local organization. It is repeatedly stressed that experimentation is an integral part of farming systems that must constantly adapt to changing circumstances. Variability may be related to fluctuating economic conditions, migration to new areas, or living in a highly variable environment, for example semi-arid areas. The book also emphasizes that sustainable agriculture need not be intensive in terms of external inputs but is definitely intensive in terms of knowledge. This requires a continuing learning process for all stakeholders, and facilitating these processes becomes an increasingly important task for scientists and extensionists.
Now a couple of critical remarks. No examples of experiments with livestock or forage are included, even though animals are an important component of smallholder farming and sustainable agriculture. The dense layout of the text does not facilitate reading. This is a criticism not so much of the editors but of the publishers, who provide reasonably priced books with interesting content and have efficient distribution channels, but pay little attention to copy editing and layout and thus lose points on readability. Nevertheless, this is a fascinating book that I can highly recommend to IKDM readers, who hopefully will recommend it further.
(Wolfgang Bayer, Consultant in extensive animal husbandry and forage management, Göttingen, Germany. E-mail: wb.waters@link-goe.de)
2. Wolfgang Bayer agreed to select two chapters for a more in-depth review in the next issue of this journal. He chose Chapters 1 and 10: J. Bhuktan, G. Denning and S. Fujisaka, ‚Rice cropping practices in Nepal: indigenous adaptation to adverse and difficult economies' and N. Röling and J. Brouwers, ‚Living local knowledge for sustainable development'.
Rowledge, L.R., R.S. Barton, and K.S. Brady in collaboration with J.A. Fava,
C.L. Figge, K. Saur, and S.B. Young (1999) Mapping the journey: Case studies in
strategy and action toward sustainable development. 288 pp. ISBN 18747-19-16-8.
GBP 16.95; USD 35. Greenleaf Publishing Ltd., Aizlewood Business Centre,
Aizlewood's Mill, Nursery Street, Sheffield S3 8GG, United Kingdom.
Fax: +44-114-282 3476.
E-mail: greenleaf@worldscope.co.uk
http://www.greenleaf-publishing.com
The worlds of business and indigenous knowledge do not often interact, unless there is a conflict over natural resources (for instance, when a mining company enters indigenous lands). Certainly, indigenous knowledge (IK) research is rarely encountered on business management bookshelves. On the flip side, research on progressive business management approaches may not be the usual fodder of many IK scholars. But increasingly, business academics and executives are striving to understand the management beliefs, knowledge and practices that lead to greater environmental performance. In this quest, they may have much to learn from IK.
This book presents case studies of progressive companies that are attempting to address environmental issues. The sectors reviewed include the transport industry (Volvo, DaimlerChrysler, SJ Rail, ASG), energy (Suncor, TransAlta Energy), consumer products (Patagonia, Sony, SC Johnson, Henkel, Interface Flooring Systems), forestry (AssiDomän), and government planning (the Centre for Technology Assessment in Germany).
Almost all of the studies emphasize technical and policy-driven approaches to measuring and reducing environmental impacts. However, despite corporate rhetoric embracing 'sustainability', many are simply attempting to improve an old non-sustainable paradigm. This is perhaps most obvious with TransAlta Energy, where the company relies heavily (95%) on coal-fired power, and is the largest Canadian contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. Yet it is simultaneously perceived to be environmentally progressive because it has stabilized emissions to 1990 levels. Part of this 'success' stems from the company's focus on emissions trading - while useful as a numerical offset, such strategies do not make TransAlta's coal-fire operations more environmentally benign. The case study aptly notes the paradox and questions whether such behaviour can ever be 'sustainable'.
In contrast, the case study of Patagonia outdoor clothing and equipment is more interesting. Environmentalism is a stated core company value, along with quality, integrity and not being bound by convention. While difficult to assess without greater access to field data, the study suggests that the company sees value in ecological reciprocity, donates 10% of pre-tax profits to grassroots environmental programmes and requires employees to undertake a two-month internship with local environmental organizations. Patagonia's success is also linked to its focus on grassroots interactions with the environment. First-hand exposure to environmental impacts has been a useful way of motivating employees and suppliers to change.
AssiDomän's integrated and localized approach to sustainable forestry in Sweden is also interesting. The company has an 'ecological balance sheet' and manages small areas using an approach whose priorities are economic and ecosystem health. While this is more expensive in the first year, AssiDomän has found that timber growth rates increase and the company can recoup this investment over a five-year period. Such approaches may be similar to IK approaches to sustainable forestry. This is an important area for future research.
Mapping the journey is not a rigorous research book. None of the cases presented provides information on methodology and it is impossible to assess the reliability of findings. Most 'cases' are largely descriptive and there are only a few instances of critical assessment. The descriptions are also uneven - some corporate stories only rate 6 or 7 pages while others are much longer. Yet the book may be useful as a catalyst on two counts. First, most of these organizations continue to operate within a management paradigm that emerged from an economic, denatured perspective on the world, despite a desire to improve performance. Next, it might help management teams working towards sustainable business development to appreciate that the real 'first explorers' here were the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Not only did they have vision, courage and strength of team and character, they also had a wealth of valuable management information and principles embedded in their traditional indigenous knowledge. As such, past and present indigenous managers can offer business managers more than romantic inspiration: IK approaches to natural resource management can provide templates for sustainable management which may be useful maps on the corporate journey to sustainability. IK-based approaches, in contrast to Western economic theories of the 'firm', have emerged from a natured sense of the world and are multi-dimensional and multi-sensory.
Of course, a note of caution should be sounded. IK is contextually based in local ecosystems and removing it from such locations may be problematic. In addition, IK should not become a management 'fad', another example of inappropriate cultural expropriation. But perhaps by reading more books like Mapping the journey, we will discover the need for increased multi-disciplinary interaction. Perhaps there is value in inviting CEOs and business researchers to learn from our detailed map of the global IK experience.
(Dr Gail Whiteman, Senior Researcher, The North-South Institute, Ottawa, Canada. E-mail: whiteman@nsi-ins.ca Website: http://www.nsi-ins.ca)
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