IK Monitor Publications (9-2)

Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor, July 2001

Contents IK Monitor (9-2) | IKDM Homepage | Suggestions to: ikdm@nuffic.nl | © copyright Nuffic-CIRAN and contributors 2001.

Publications

Estrella Marisol (ed) et al (2000) Learning from change: issues and experiences in participatory monitoring and evaluation. Intermediate Technology Publications, International Development Research Centre. 274 pp. GBP8.95; USD25. ISBN 1-85339-469-6. Intermediate Technology Publications, 103-105 Southampton Row, London WC1B 4HL, United Kingdom and International Development Research Centre, P.O. Box 8500, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1G 3H9.
Fax: +44-20-7436 2013
Website: http://www.developmentbookshop.com

Participation is an undeniably vital element in successfully implementing rural development projects and programmes. Over the past decade, the practice of participation has grown to include local people's involvement in virtually every aspect of development, from conceptualizing, planning and implementation to monitoring and evaluation (M&E). Learning from change is one of the latest books on the meaning and significance of participation in M&E. This book is an important read both for practitioners and students of development who want to learn more of the ways and means as well as the practical and theoretical aspects of successful Participatory M&E (PM&E).

Throughout the text, the role of indigenous knowledge (IK), including the understanding of pre-existing, traditional systems of social organization, is self-evident. Participation brings IK to the forefront of development.

For ease of use, the book incorporates many figures and tables, an extensive glossary of acronyms and abbreviations, a large bibliography, a full index, and 17 chapters of case studies, analysis and discussion. The book is a collaboration between practitioners of PM&E (and several of its variations). The studies presented are based on extensive field experiences of small community-based organizations (CBOs), local and international non-governmental organizations (LNGOs and INGOs), development institutions, academics, researchers, donors, and national government officers. The practitioners who contributed to the book cover a wide range of professions and perspectives, including rural sociologists and anthropologists, political scientists, development economists, resource managers (forestry, fisheries), agriculturists, veterinary specialists, community organizers, nutritionists, and a variety of other participation and monitoring specialists. And last but not least - local people and their knowledge, experience and perspectives are ever present. There is a wealth of field experience and understanding in this book for everyone.

Learning from change is a professional collaboration based on in-depth fieldwork and analysis, the culmination of a PM&E workshop held in 1997 at the International Institute for Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) in the Philippines. Altogether, the participants represented 27 countries and 41 institutions. The experiences of many of the participants were then collected, edited and refined into the present book. In addition to the Introduction, the book comprises four parts: Part 1 - 'Methodological innovations' - has five insightful case studies examining PM&E in community forestry in Nepal; developing monitoring indicators in Mexico; addressing stakeholder needs in Bolivia and Laos; and experimenting with participatory monitoring in Brazil. Part 2 - 'Learning with communities' - contains four more case studies on strengthening citizen participation in the Philippines, Colombia, Ecuador and the rural USA. Part 3 - 'Changing institutions' - comprises four studies on grassroots development and poverty alleviation from Palestine, Zambia, Mongolia, and in West Africa and South Asia. Part 4 - 'Conclusions' - discusses conceptual tools and methodological issues, capacity building and issues of scale, based on lessons learned and best practices from the other chapters.

To gain true understanding and wisdom in development it is, I believe, more important to know what questions to ask (and whom to ask them of) than to have a kit bag full of ready answers. This book is a good example of the appropriate-question approach to learning. In the final part of the book, the authors raise and respond to important questions and issues concerning accountability, power relationships, conflict, institutional learning, change and flexibility in applying PM&E, 'ownership' of process and results, trust and trustworthiness, issues of political and social context, enabling policies, capacity needs, leadership and champions, and linkages (learning from others).

Learning from change is all about learning with and from local people. It is an excellent source of insight and understanding about participation, and is highly recommended to field practitioners, teachers, students, and policy-makers.

(Don Messerschmidt PhD Antropologist, International Development, Independent consultant, P.O. Box 8975 (EPC1847), Kathmandu, Nepal. E-mail: donmxx@yahoo.com)

Kabeer, Naila (1999) The conditions and consequences of choice: reflections on the measurement of women's empowerment. 57 pp. ISBN 1012-6511. Discussion paper 108. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland
Fax: +44-22-917 06 50
E-mail: info@unrisd.org
http://www.unrisd.org

The author of this discussion paper is a Fellow of the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, United Kingdom. It is predominantly a work of critical reflection on how social scientists, commonly outsiders to the communities they study, construct indicators of women's empowerment. It is a complex paper in three parts, covering a number of aspects of this very challenging topic, and is well researched, if somewhat depressing in the final analysis.

Kabeer first establishes a three-dimensional conceptual framework to assist our thinking about women's empowerment. She argues that we need to consider three equally significant factors in the task of measurement: women's access to resources (as precondition), their agency (as process) and their achievement of the goals that are important to them, their families and communities (as outcome).

In the second part, she offers a critical reflection on some of the more traditional means of measuring women's empowerment, carefully showing the strengths and limitations of each approach. She also examines the contributions of more recent approaches, again showing their limitations despite the goodwill that is also in evidence. She concludes this part of her reflection with the proposition that many approaches to the measurement of women's empowerment do not, in fact, measure what they purport to measure and that such flawed findings have often sent policymakers and funding bodies in completely the wrong direction as a consequence.

The third and final part of this paper is by far the most challenging to any 'outside', quantitative social scientist. Kabeer's work suggests that possibly the most important factor in empowerment is a combination of a woman's capacity to earn money coupled with the overall attitude of her local community to women's autonomy in general, not her own individual autonomy.

Kabeer's appeal is for outsiders to recognize that the values of women, as a subordinate group in many economically developing countries, are often misinterpreted by powerful outsiders because women do not want the same 'empowerment' as outsiders. Her conclusion suggests that women are only as empowered as their community allows them to be, and that can change from one village to another even though they may be economically similar and geographically close.

This discussion paper does not, on first reading, relate to indigenous knowledge or sustainable development but to conclude that Kabeer's work has no relevance to either would be a mistake. Her paper raises a number of theoretical issues for those readers who are interested in discussing gender issues within the broader field of indigenous knowledge and sustainable development. For example, what happens when a group of indigenous women hold knowledge about a practice that may be harmful to them but benefits the stability of the broader community? Do we support women in abandoning self-harming practices as a strategy of empowerment or do we argue for the preservation of such practices as indigenous knowledge?

The critical reflections in Kabeer's paper will not resolve such dilemmas but will encourage us to remain aware of our own values and power when we commit our agencies to the task of women's empowerment.

(Zane Ma Rhea, National Centre for Gender & Cultural Diversity, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. E-mail: zmarhea@swin.edu.au; http://www.swin.edu.au/corporate/ncgcd)

Langton, Marcia (1998) Burning questions: emerging environmental issues for indigenous peoples in Northern Australia. 89 pp. ISBN 1-876483-067. Centre for Indigenous Natural and Cultural Resource Management (CINCRM), Northern Territory University, Darwin, Australia.
Phone: +61-8-8946 7756.
E-mail: cincrm@ntu.edu.au

Two reviews: one from R.J. Fisher and another from Zane Ma Rhea

The occupation of Australia by its indigenous people has lasted at least sixty thousand years. Aboriginal land-use practices (including controlled burning of forest and savanna) are subject to two quite contradictory interpretations. On the one hand, prehistoric burning and hunting practices have been blamed for the extinction of megafauna and rainforests. This view that early Aboriginal populations caused massive environmental destruction is sometimes used to support arguments against Aboriginal land rights. On the other hand, traditional Aboriginal land-use practices are regarded as having low impact, simply because the number of Aboriginals was low and their land-use conservative. The consequence is that much of the land occupied by Aboriginal people in northern Australia is now regarded as wilderness. Aboriginal rights to manage these lands are threatened because of their conservation value. In other words, rights are threatened both because previous use was destructive and, paradoxically, because it had no effective impact on wilderness.

This book presents a powerful challenge to both these views. Marcia Langton disputes the evidence for environmental devastation by fire in an argument too complex to deal with in a short review. She further argues that the so-called wilderness areas in northern Australia are not wilderness at all, but anthropogenic and humanized. The traditional Aboriginal use of fire was purposeful and responsible action aimed at changing various aspects of the environment. Management objectives included the reduction of dry undergrowth to prevent major catastrophic fires (the Australian continent is subject to a high frequency of natural fires) and the creation of a mosaic pattern of habitats of burned and unburned areas. The conclusion is that the so-called wilderness is an artefact, a cultural landscape. This argument is supported in an introductory essay about traditional knowledge and use of fire by Dean Yibarukan, an Aboriginal leader active in conservation issues.

The discussion of forest ecology and fire has practical implications for environmental management in Australia, where Protected Area Management sometimes utilizes (or at least mimics) Aboriginal burning practices. For example, contemporary management of Kakadu National Park includes a regime of controlled cool-season burning which reduces the amount of fuel available to feed potentially catastrophic hot-season fires. The IUCN (the World Conservation Union) has been increasingly advocating and supporting community-based approaches to fire management that build on indigenous knowledge of this kind. Burning questions makes a timely contribution to this debate.

Several case studies demonstrate how indigenous knowledge has been contributing to broader environmental management in Arnhem Land in Australia's Northern Territory. For example, the Dhimurru Aboriginal Land Management Corporation has been working with researchers to combine indigenous knowledge and practices with scientific efforts aimed at marine turtle conservation. The Bawinanga Aboriginal Corporation has been involved in collaborative research aimed at biodiversity conservation through sustainable use of resources. Activities have included the establishment of a project involving the sustainable harvesting of saltwater crocodile eggs.

This book will appeal to readers interested in forest ecology and fire, or in indigenous natural resource management practices, and to others interested in indigenous people and the politics of conservation.

(R.J. Fisher, Regional Community Forestry Training Center, Bangkok, Thailand)

The other review:

The book contains an introductory essay by Dean Munuggullumurr Yibarbuk, who speaks with authority about interrelated practices in the economic, social and sacred realms of fire management. In this essay, he introduces the reader to the traditional use of fire on the upper Cadell River in the Maningrida area of Central Arnhem Land. The knowledge of fire has traditionally lived within the people of the area. Yirabuk notes that 'today fire is not well looked after'. He argues in the closing paragraph that 'Fire must be managed and people must be on their country to manage that fire.'

Langton takes up this argument and offers a critical historical and contemporary examination of how and why non-indigenous 'experts', environmental scientists and conservationists have created what she terms the 'science fiction' that their knowledge is collectively 'better' for the environment than the knowledge held by indigenous peoples. She examines five 'fictions': the concept of 'wilderness'; changes in the nature of Aboriginal land use; population; and the increasing economic development of the region. She then engages in a critical response to those who claim that indigenous Australians have had a negative impact on their environment through their resource management practices, using fire management as an example. Finally, she provides three case studies of Aboriginal governance of their own lands in support of her critical examination.

There are a number of important issues raised by Langton that will interest the reader. One is that use of indigenous knowledge of land management and governance has been under attack in Australia from scientists and conservationists. This will be familiar to many readers. Another is that there needs to be formal agreement between indigenous and non-indigenous peoples so that the former can play a recognized role in undertaking traditional custodial practices and assuming newly identified responsibilities in the management of land.

Another important element is Langton's critique of our understanding of the notion of 'wilderness'. In short, she argues that when non-indigenous people see a non-urban or rural landscape in Australia, they call it 'wilderness'. What they forget is that indigenous people have been managing that landscape for thousands of years. She argues for the use of the term 'cultural landscape' and in doing so, challenges our fundamental, romanticised notions of the pristine, untouched, natural environment that we are often so keen to 'preserve'.

Langton's monograph exposes a comprehensive flaw in contemporary western impositions of land-management systems that have denied the knowledge and action of indigenous peoples in Australia. Langton shows us why it is vital to address this flaw so that indigenous Australians can achieve the rightful recognition of their rights and skills in the management of land in Australia.

The author of this monograph, Marcia Langton, holds the Chair of Australian Indigenous Studies at the University of Melbourne. She is one of Australia's leading authorities on contemporary issues and has made a significant contribution to the debate about the rights and responsibilities of indigenous and non-indigenous owners and custodians of land, and resource management within those lands. She has held a number of representative and advisory positions for organizations such as the Central and Cape York Land Councils, and has worked for many years as an anthropologist. She has published extensively.

(Zane Ma Rhea, National Centre for Gender & Cultural Diversity, Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia. E-mail: zmarhea@swin.edu.au; http://www.swin.edu.au/corporate/ncgcd)

World Resources Institute (2000) World Resources Report 2000-2001. People and Ecosystems: The Fraying Web of Life. 400 pp. ISBN 1-56973-443-7. USD27 (excluding postage). World Resources Institute, 10 G Street, NE, Washington, DC. 20002, USA. Tel.: Tel. +1-202-729 7600
Fax: +1-202-729 7610
http://www.wri.org/wri

This millennial edition, the ninth in the World Resources series, is the result of a unique partnership between the UN Development Programme, the UN Environment Programme, the World Bank and the World Resources Institute (WRI). It contains thoughtful contributions from hundreds of scholars, scientists, and policy specialists. It focuses on five critical ecosystems shaped by the interaction of the physical environment, biological conditions and human intervention: croplands, forests, coastal zones, freshwater systems and grasslands. These five ecosystem types were chosen because they cover the bulk of the earth's land area and a significant portion of its oceans. Together, they produce a wide variety of goods and services, some of which have not been recognized or valued but all of which sustain human life. It also analyses current global environmental trends in population, human well-being, food and water security, consumption and waste, energy use and climate change.

This full-colour, informative book should be read by everyone concerned about our future. Information is presented in a organized way and the language is suitable for the layman. The report is divided in two main parts, plus sources (acronyms, acknowledgements, notes and references, and index). Additional information and illustration is provided in the form of boxes and graphics.

The message of Chapter 1 ('Linking people and ecosystems') is that ecosystems make the earth habitable. It details the goods and services ecosystems provide, and warns that human action has reduced their capacity to continue to deliver benefits. Although the WRI recognizes that all living organisms have intrinsic value, the Report considers ecosystems and their management from an anthropocentric perspective because human use is the primary source of pressure on ecosystems today. Coastal ecosystems, for example, have already lost much of their capacity to produce fish because of overfishing, destructive trawling techniques and the destruction of nursery habitats (mangroves). As we all know, many ecological problems are local in origin and have local or regional consequences. However, the causes of problems such as acid rain, ozone depletion, invasive species and global warming may lie in a neighbouring country and affect us all. Chapter 2 ('Taking stock of ecosystems') presents the results of a comprehensive, preliminary assessment of the world's major ecosystems. The appendix to this chapter contains brief profiles of mountain, polar, and urban ecosystems of fundamental importance to human health and well-being. Chapter 3 ('Living in ecosystems') traces the histories of several ecosystems and the people whose lives depend on them, whose activities have degraded or destroyed them, and who have the power to restore them. As Chapter 1 points out, 'Local people hold enormous potential both for managing ecosystems sustainably and for damaging them through careless use'. Five brief stories from Cuba, the Caribbean, the Philippines, New York City, and the watershed of Asia's Mekong River complement the detailed case histories. Chapter 4 ('Adopting an ecosystem approach') discusses the Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems (PAGE), which presents a global assessment of the state of the world's ecosystems (the five types listed above). The results of this pilot analysis show that the overall capacity of ecosystems to meet our needs is decreasing. The PAGE results also show that consistent, reliable measurements of ecosystem conditions are difficult to obtain both at global level and at local or national level, where most land-use decisions are made.

Part two contains current data tables and time series for hundreds of indicators in more than 150 countries, with information about world resources in 2000-2001: biodiversity and protected areas, forests and grasslands, coastal, marine, and inland waters, agriculture and food, freshwater systems, atmosphere and climate, energy and resource use, population and human development, basic economic indicators, and small nations and islands. According to the editors, the data will be continually updated and expanded as new statistics become available (see the website at http://www.wri.org).

The report's recommendations call for an ecosystem approach to managing the world's critical resources, which means evaluating decisions on land and resource use in the light of how they affect the capacity of ecosystems to produce goods and services. As the WRI President Jonathan Lash points out, its key recommendation is that governments, research institutions and people everywhere should support the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, a policy-oriented scientific investigation into the state of key ecosystems around the world.

(Eraldo Medeiros Costa-Neto, ethnobiology researcher, Feira de Santana State University and Brazilian Society of Ethnobiology and Ethnoecology, eraldont@mail.uefs.br)

CECAP and PhilRice (2000) Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera. Central Cordillera Agricultural Programme (CECAP), Banaue, Ifugao and Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), Maligaya, Muñoz, Nueva Ecija, Philippines. 213 pp. ISBN 971-9081-09-0.
Tel. +63-44-4560277
Fax. +63-44-0651
E-mail: tpd@mozcom.com

This is a compilation of papers presented during a workshop on rice production in the highlands of the Philippine Cordillera. The workshop was organized by the Central Cordillera Agricultural Programme (CECAP), the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) and the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction (IIRR) and held at Banaue, Philippines in July 1999. CECAP is a development programme run by the Department of Agriculture in Manila and jointly funded by the Government of the Philippines and the European Union. PhilRice is a government corporation attached to the Department of Agriculture whose mission is to develop technologies enabling farmers to produce sufficient rice for the entire population. IIRR is a non-government organization based in the Philippines that provides services and assistance to rural people.

The workshop brought together extension workers, researchers and farmers to share their experiences in highland rice production. The book therefore contains some of the best field-tested and farmer-approved practices in rice farming in the Philippine Cordillera. Most important, it describes the traditional practices of the Cordilleran farmers who built the famous Banaue Rice Terraces. The papers testify to continuing support for the use of traditional practices in achieving sustainable development. They also demonstrate that ancient practices are potentially as important as modern practices in development.

The book presents an exhaustive overview of rice production in the highlands of the Philippine Cordillera, and describes some specific modern and traditional practices in rice farming in the region. It also includes recommended extension approaches that have been effective in promoting innovation in the area. The overview describes the current state of rice farming in the Cordillera, the constraints on rice production and emerging solutions, the issue of maintaining the terraces, rice production strategies, and the unique land-use system of the traditional Ifugao. It presents financial analyses and discusses labour allocation in rice production. There is also an interesting article on the role of gender in rice production that outlines the principles and guidelines to be followed in gender analysis and the promotion of gender equality.

Regarding specific traditional and modern practices, the book notes the huge rice biodiversity of the Cordillera (308 varieties), the various rice-based cropping systems such as the rice-vegetable farming system and the rice-fish culture system, and methods of selecting, managing and transplanting rice seeds and seedlings. It also highlights the various factors causing soil fertility decline and the range of practices useful in maintaining and improving fertility. On water management, it gives details of the new approach known as intermittent irrigation and existing indigenous irrigation systems in the Cordillera. In the section on pest management, it identifies various pests common in the region and recommends strategies for controlling them, including both local and expert-prescribed measures. It also recommends the use of a micro tiller to till rice terraces in order to reduce the time needed for land preparation. The authors record examples of indigenous rice harvesting methods like the use of an angled knife, and post-harvest practices such as drying bundled rice and storing it in a granary, production of rice wine and some food products. Finally, the extension approaches recommended for technicians promoting rice-farming innovations in the Cordillera focus on farmer-leaders and change agents as partners.

Every article is accompanied by illustrations and the language is clear and suitable for the layman. The reviewer's only complaint is that the binding is likely to fall apart: a resource book should be much more durable.

Overall, this is a very valuable publication for all development practitioners promoting the importance of local knowledge in sustainable rural development, specifically extension technicians, non-government organizations, community-based organizations, farmers and researchers. It is also very useful for those interested in improving rice production in the highlands through farmers' methods and technologies. Some practices featured in the book could also be adopted in areas where conditions are similar.

(Maria Corazon Y. Mendoza, independent researcher, Dasmariñas, Cavite, Philippines. E-mail: mcymendoza@hotmail.com)

Schöll, Laura van (1998) Soil fertility management. Agrodok 2. Wageningen: Agromisa/CTA. 80 pp. ISBN 90-72746-02-3. Available in English, French and Spanish.. Agromisa, P.O. Box 41, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands,
Fax: +31-317-419178
E-mail: agromisa@wxs.nl.

Hilhorst, Thea and Camilla Toulmin (2000) Integrated soil fertility management. Policy and Best Practice Document No. 7. The Hague: DGIS. 64 pp. ISBN 90-5328-283-1. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, P.O. Box 20061, 2500 EB The Hague, The Netherlands, order code OSDR 0434/E.

Both booklets deal with soil fertility management in the tropics. But because they are intended for very different audiences, their subject matter could hardly be more divergent. The Agrodok provides a practical manual geared towards literate farmers and extension workers who would like to increase their understanding of soil fertility and its management. It discusses the ins and outs of various farm-level fertility management strategies and techniques such as mulching, green manuring, intercropping, green fallow, agroforestry, composting, manuring and use of mineral fertiliser. A separate section offers more theoretical information on soil characteristics and nutrients, and suggestions for further reading.

One of the strengths of the Agrodok is that it treats relatively complicated issues in quite accessible language. However, a good understanding of English and some background on the subjects discussed will facilitate comprehension. One of the problems with the booklet is that it covers so many different fertility management practices that each discussion remains rather cursory. One of the dangers of such brief 'how-to guides' is that not everything will work under all circumstances. Climate, soil, hydrology and social factors will determine the relevance of each of the discussed practices for a particular setting. Some suggestions may even be counterproductive if applied in the wrong way or in the wrong place. In several places the text rightly points out that some things work only in particular agro-climatic zones, but given the brevity of the text such limitations are not always spelled out so clearly. In other words, readers should take care and experiment carefully to see whether a particular practice is appropriate for their setting. This aspect could be emphasized a little more in a future issue of this booklet. The next edition of this Agrodok could also benefit from review by a native English speaker.

The DGIS document is geared towards policymakers in governments, NGOs and international agencies and in particular those working for the Government of the Netherlands or seeking assistance from that government. It provides a broad survey of everything that is or could be of relevance when planning, executing or evaluating policy on soil fertility management, covering some history, different intervention paradigms, the current state of knowledge on soil conditions and the various factors influencing soil fertility management. It provides dense reading and is clearly best suited to readers with a university education.

The DGIS document provides a well balanced overview of all the policy issues at stake when it comes to integrated soil fertility management. Through its literature references it can also form a good starting point for the reader to delve into certain subjects in more detail. The document presents various views, not just the personal opinions of the authors. The point made most forcibly is that we have to put the farmer in a central position in soil fertility management. The fourth and last chapter tries to outline ways of achieving this, but in an age where project interventions are increasingly being replaced by programme support it can be quite hard to involve farmers at each step of the policy process. Reading this chapter made me painfully aware of the inherent contradiction of these two aspects of Dutch development policy: a farmer-centred approach in combination with non-earmarked budget support for particular sectors. In other words, moving up and down the hierarchy at one and the same time. While the document presents some good pointers on how to deal with this issue it does not provide a complete answer.

(Dr David Niemeijer, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, Netherlands. E-mail: DNiemeijer@rcl.wau.nl)

Wari Zárate Gutiérrez Ayamra Kuru Guia didáctica (1997) Chirapaq Centro de Cultura Indígenas 60 pp. Av. Horacio Urteaga 534-201, Jesús Maria, Lima, Peru.
E-mail : chirapaq@amauta.rcp.net.pe

Chirapac, the organisation which published the book, organised the so-called ñoqanchi (Quechua word for 'us') weaving workshops, based on the indigenous weaving traditions of the displaced population.

Aymara Kuru, the title of the book, indicates a traditional Andean textile expression form, which includes traditional materials as well as designs. This small book is a training guide for the children, teenagers and adults involved in the weaving workshops. It is very well illustrated and explains into detail the traditional material used, the traditional spinning and dyeing techniques, as well as the actual process of weaving. The book also briefly explains the role of weaving in the Andean culture.

I find it an interesting book for those who want to know more about traditional indigenous Andean weaving techniques, and how these can be used to stimulate cultural identity and income. It is a practical guide directed at the participants of the workshops. Therefore it does not include any methodological aspects of stimulating cultural identity and material wellbeing of displaced indigenous groups by means of weaving workshops.

(Katrien 't Hooft, ETC Ecoculture, Leusden, The Netherlands, e-mail: katrien.hooft@etcnl.nl)

Dulal Chandra Pal and Sudhanshu Kumar Jain (1998) Tribal Medicine. 317 pp. ISBN 81-85421-30-7. Rs495; USD25 Calcutta: Naya Prokash, 206 Bidhan Sarani, P.O. Box 11468, Calcutta 700 006, India. Limited availability.
Tel.: +91-33-2414709
Fax: +91-33-5382897

This unique book discusses important medicinal plants used in the prevention and treatment of disease in humans and animals. It is of use to ethnobotanists, research chemists, pharmacologists, traditional medicine practitioners and other medical personnel interested in indigenous medicine.

Based on Dulal Chandra Pal's doctoral thesis, the book draws extensively on 20 years' field work and theoretical studies of selected ethnic groups in the tribal societies of Lodba and South-Eastern Asia. The articles cover 298 medicinal plant genera, 343 plant species and 1006 new prescriptions. There are 9 chapters, 3 indexes and a bibliography. Index 1 gives the tribal names of plants, while index 2 lists diseases (human and veterinary) and their symptoms. Index 3 contains the names of medicinal plants that are of export value. The 9 chapters can be divided into 3 related sections. Section 1 (chapters 1-3) contains the introduction, a description of the tools used in the study, and a review of the relevant literature, taboos and belief systems as well as of methods of diagnosing and treating human and animal diseases in Indian communities. Section 2 (chapters 4-8) gives the historical background to Indian and South-East Asian traditional systems of medicine, and describes methods of preparing drugs from herbs using indigenous technology. This section documents medicinal plants in Indian flora from 800 BC to the early 20th century. Section 3 (chapter 9) contains 2000 prescriptions (1006 of them new) used in the treatment of human and animal diseases. In this section, medicinal plants are listed alphabetically according to family, species, tribal and common names. These plants are later described according to their morphological, seasonal and geographical distributions so that those without a botanical background can easily identify plants of interest. Identification is made easier by the inclusion of illustrations showing the plants in their natural settings.

It would seem that the authors had four objectives in documenting traditional systems of medicine in India and South-East Asia from antiquity to modern times. The first is to link various knowledge systems with development trends among the groups studied, the second to give an insight into how knowledge of indigenous medicinal plants can contribute to the sustainability of disease treatment and prevention, the third to evaluate the extent to which indigenous knowledge has progressed to scientific knowledge over a long period of time, and the fourth to establish priority areas where research is most needed to improve the lives of members of these communities.

The book argues that indigenous knowledge complements scientific knowledge and that both are necessary. The authors agree that the critical difference between the two lies not so much in theory but rather in the ability to harness resources to study unexplored areas. In other words, scientific knowledge has greater access to resources and deploys them in a way that disadvantages indigenous knowledge. In developing countries the most effective way to focus attention on indigenous knowledge is to empower indigenous communities to lobby political decisionmakers so that they pursue policies that will harmonize indigenous and western knowledge. Such policies should establish methods of obtaining information from people in the localities where indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants is gradually being lost. They must also improve the way indigenous knowledge is stored in archives and libraries and promote easy retrieval.

The authors emphasise the urgent need for research into effective ways of documenting and transmitting indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants to future generations. In their words 'nature created plants to cure every disease, man simply needs to discover them.' They note that indigenous plants like panax, taxus castanospermum and rauwolfia are currently being used to treat modern diseases like aids, cancer and hypertension.

This is a masterpiece, marred only by some minor typographical errors.

(Dr Ezinna Enwereji, College of Medicine, Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria)

Costa Neto, Eraldo Medeiros (2000) Introdução à Etnoentomology: Considerações metodológicas e estudo de caso (Introductory Ethnoentomology: methodological approaches and case studies). 131 pp. ISBN 85-7395-020-X. Imprensa Universitária, Universidade Estatual de Feira de Santana, BR 116, Km 3, Campus Universitário. 44031-480 Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil.
Tel.: +55-75-224 8008
Fax.: +55-75-224 8045

The Brazilian scientific community will certainly welcome the first book in ethnoentomology written in Portuguese, one that fills a gap in our entomological literature. The book consists of seven chapters structured in four parts.

Chapter 1 introduces readers to the conceptual framework of ethnoentomology and describes how valuable this branch of ethnoscience is in understanding aspects of social and scientific development in Western society. Chapter 2 discusses the methodological approaches applied to ethnoentomological research, emphasizing the challenges of laboratory and fieldwork as well as presenting useful guidelines for successful and rewarding interactions during interviews. Chapter 3 discusses the ethnocategory 'insect' in the Entomoprojective Ambivalence Hypothesis, in the context of data gathered during field work in several areas in the State of Bahia, Northeastern Brazil. Chapter 4 focuses on the ethnotaxonomy and significance of bees and wasps to a Indian community living in the semi-arid zone of Bahia. Chapter 5 discusses the importance of insects to the advertising industry as agents for enhancing sales of products and services. Chapter 6 addresses the important role of insects for both rural and urban communities in the State of Alagoas in Northeastern Brazil and their use as cosmetics, fishing bait, food, medicine, entertainment and as magical and mystical symbols. Chapter 7 details the importance and risks of insects as a food supply for humans, emphasizing their economic and nutritional importance as well as the potential toxicity of some species. In his epilogue the author expresses his confidence that ethnoentomological studies in Brazil will be strengthened and enhanced and suggests lines of research that could become reality in the near future.

One limitation is that most of the information was gathered from just two States located in Northeastern Brazil, which in view of the cultural and environmental diversity of the country may entail some geographical bias. However, the book is well-written and easy to understand, indeed a pleasure to read. It is richly illustrated and documented, presenting over 200 references from Brazilian and international literature that will be very helpful to those interested in the field in general or in ethnoentomology in Brazil.

(Felix Humberto Franca, Embrapa - Hortalicas, Laboratório de Entomologia, Caixa Postal 218, 70359-970 Brasilia, DF, Brazil. E-mail : franca@cnph.embrapa.br)

Maffi, Luisa, Gonzalo Oviedo, and Peter Billy Larsen (2000) Indigenous and traditional peoples of the world and ecoregions conservation: an integrated approach to conserving the world's biological and cultural diversity. A World Wildlife Foundation (WWF) research report. Gland, Switzerland, October 2000.
E-mail: goviedo@wwfint.org

For more information about the report: http://panda.org/resources/publications/sustainability/indigenous

WWF has devised a new approach to its conservation work called ecoregion conservation. In developing this approach, it has mapped out 874 ecoregions of the world, and has found 238 of them to be of the utmost importance for biodiversity. It is collaborating with the international NGO Terralingua (partnerships for linguistic and biological diversity).

The WWF's basic premise as a conservation organization is concern about the loss of biodiversity and the quality of the world's environment. But it is also increasingly concerned about the loss of cultures and knowledge. Traditional peoples have accumulated vast amounts of ecological knowledge in their long history of managing the environment and such knowledge is embodied in languages. That knowledge is not recorded in writing, but passed on to other groups or new generations orally. The loss of local languages means the loss of the main means of knowledge transmission.

WWF carried out an exercise to chart all identifiable ethnolinguistic groups of the world on the Global 200 map. The results show a very significant overlap between the areas with the richest biodiversity and those with substantial conservation of distinct cultures. What is more, there is evidence from many parts of the world that healthy, non-degraded ecosystems are often the ones inhabited by indigenous and traditional peoples. In addition to the Global 200 map, the exercise produced a report containing research results and a database showing the distribution of ethnolinguistic groups per ecoregion, major habitat type, and realm. The report also provides guidance for conservation practitioners working with indigenous and traditional people at ecoregional level.