IK Monitor Articles (9-2)

Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor, July 2001

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M.A. Wienecke

Vernacular housing and building materials in Namibia

The discussion of indigenous knowledge within the framework of sustainable development has traditionally focused on such areas as agriculture, medicines, and food production. In Africa, vernacular housing and related issues still represent traditional knowledge and customs in many countries. This aspect will be illustrated by an examination of the current state of vernacular housing in Namibia, on the basis of examples from the formerly nomadic Nama and !Kung, as well as Ovambo-speaking groups.

Vernacular buildings are seldom the object of attention, except where they are of historical value, as in the case of Timbuktu or the Zimbabwe ruins, or the work of Hassan Fathy. However, the debate on sustainable development has reiterated that policies should respect the identity and culture of indigenous peoples (UNCHS 1998:13). UNCED (1992:§7.41 (c)) advocates development in accordance with indigenous practices and the adoption of technologies appropriate to local conditions. Section 7.69 suggests that all countries should establish and strengthen the indigenous building materials industry, in accordance with national plans, objectives and priorities.

A number of traditional building methods, which make use of locally available materials, have for centuries provided shelter for the indigenous inhabitants and have become part of the knowledge base of these societies. However, factors such as climate, population growth and the impact of Western influences, have led to changes in the environment and in the use of local building materials. The sustainability of vernacular buildings must now be reviewed, as the availability of many locally available natural materials is declining in many parts of Namibia.

In many of Namibia's rural areas, vernacular housing is still in use. In the north of the country, the majority of the people still live in traditional homesteads. However, the influence of modern construction materials and methods is increasingly visible in rural as well as urban settlements. In some regions, vernacular housing is no longer promoted, which may in the near future result in the loss of traditional knowledge. The original Nama mat-hut can be seen only in museums or - temporarily - at cultural festivities.

Traditional housing in Southern Namibia
The traditional Nama hut, with a diameter of 3.5 to 5 meters, was ideally suited for the nomadic life, as it was light, easily set up and dismantled.

The main materials used are branches from either the Ziziphus mucronata or the Tamarix usneoides (Haacke 1982:84). The bark was placed in glowing ashes to make it easier to loosen (Elmenhorst 1926, Haacke 1982). The thick end of the branchwas placed into the ground and a stone was fastened to the top, to bend it; after a few days it had the required form. Women weaved the mats from rushes found near water holes, such as Cyperus marginatus (Elmenhorst 1926, Haacke 1982:88). These mats had a length of 4 to 8 meters and a width of about one metre.

An interesting feature of these mats was the fact that they were woven in such a way that the individual rushes did not touch each other. During the rainy season, the rushes swelled, filling the openings (Elmenhorst 1926, Haacke 1982:79). During dry weather conditions, the openings provided ventilation and allowed light to enter the hut. Climatic changes, especially the droughts which have taken place in the last 20-25 years, have led to a decline in the availability of rushes, except in the area near the Fish River. The highly labour-intensive method of sewing the mats is no longer practiced. The inhabitants who participated in the last in-depth study (Haacke 1982) are probably no longer alive (conversation with professor Haacke June 2000). Only in the Berseba district have a few examples of traditional structures been built, which are covered with plastic sheeting or scrap metal. Mat huts are still erected during festivities such as Witbooi day, or before certain weddings, when a bridal hut, covered with hemp, is constructed as a concession to tradition. The only complete huts are in the collections of the museums in Windhoek and Keetmanshoop.

Traditional shelter in Eastern Namibia
In the Kalahari, the formerly nomadic San, such as the !Kung, did not have permanent dwellings. They returned to the same waterholes and areas where plant food grows (Marshall 1976:79). An encampment was never built near a waterhole, but situated about 800 m away, because of the wild animals which visit waterholes (Marshall 1976:79; Passarge 1907:44). The women decided on where a shelter would be built. Branches were placed in holes and the tops woven together. The frame was covered with tall grass. When rain or wind was expected, grass was fastened onto the frame with long strands of Sansevieria scabrifolia fibres or bark (Marshall 1976:88). Unless it was raining, women often did not build shelters (Marshall 1976:88). Two sticks were put up, symbolizing the entrance to the shelter, and to show the family which side of the fire was the man's and which the woman's. The !Kung spent most of their time next to their fire, i.e., in front of their shelter rather than inside it (Marshall 1976:80).

The ground on the site of the shelter was cleared. Soft sand was the preferred surface in the vicinity of the fire. For the foundations and supports, twelve to twenty holes were dug in the form of a crescent. Flexible branches were gathered, about 1.50 to 1.80 m long, with a diameter of 25 millimetres. Each branch was placed into a hole and tamped down. The finished shelter is a semi-circle, between 1.20 and 1.50 metres high, with only one opening, which can face in any direction (Marshall 1976:97-88).

Today traditional huts are constructed mainly as attractions in some tourist camps and museums. Furthermore, many of the formerly nomadic people now live in permanent settlements. Vernacular shelters are still being built, if no assistance is available to upgrade these settlements. Organizations such as WIMSA support certain areas where traditional knowledge is still alive (see WIMSA 1997 and 1999).

Traditional homesteads in Northern Namibia
The most densely populated areas in northern Namibia include the Ovambo-speaking regions. Building methods and organizational structures are determined by traditional beliefs, norms, and values, and by the availability of materials (Mills 1984:1). Homesteads must be suitably sited and functionally designed, taking into account the socioeconomic requirements of the family unit, the neighbourhood and district (Mills 1984:60). In addition, in an area where material and land resources are limited, it is important for the well-being of all the inhabitants that the homestead is well integrated into the environment.

Traditionally, the men are responsible for constructing the walls and the roof frame, thatching the roof, and making the sun-dried mud bricks (Mills 1984:97). Women assist the men by collecting grass and millet stalks for thatching, plastering the walls, and preparing the mud and dung surface of the floor.

The palisaded walls of rondavels and fences consist of timber poles, millet stalks, or mud bricks. According to the traditional design, there are no windows, only a narrow, low doorway. The threshold is constructed out of bottles or timber to prevent rainwater from entering the hut (Mills 1984:90-93). According to the calculations of Erkkilä and Siiskonen (1992:153-154), an average homestead with a floor area of about 1900 square metres, and a 2-meter-high outside palisade (302 metres long), requires 7700 poles, which is the equivalent of more than 100 cubic metres of dry wood. Such a wooden construction only lasts for about six years, and this results in the removal of at least 15 cubic metres of wood from indigenous woodland per year or 1.5 cubic metres per capita per annum.

In the past, people used tree branches to construct a fence or a new rondavel. First, the bark and the sapwood had to be removed, to get to the inner hardwood, which is much harder and resistant to termites and woodboring beetles (Marsh 1994:11). Today, due to the rapid population growth, every single piece of wood is used. Trees are cut down, contributing to environmental problems such as deforestation and desertification. In those areas where naturally available materials are diminishing, other thatching materials can be bought from traders. At present, modern methods and materials are supplementing traditional building materials in northern Namibia. Cement or lime and clay can be mixed and used to make bricks, replacing the traditional walls, made of sticks. There is also a trend towards the use of 'modern' cement-based materials for the construction of houses. An alternative is corrugated steel sheeting, which is widely used, even though it is a somewhat inappropriate material, especially during summer.

Conclusion
In the north of Namibia, various areas are experiencing deforestation, desertification, and a diminishing availability of traditional building materials. As a result, people are using a combination of modern and traditional building materials. In the southern regions, traditional shelter is no longer in use, following the disappearance of the nomadic lifestyle, and people now use modern materials. San communities are now living mostly in permanent settlements, where they are increasingly exposed to modernity.

Vanishing knowledge has become a fact of life in the case of the traditional housing formerly used by certain indigenous peoples in Namibia. This trend will most likely continue in the future. The question is, whether the traditional building methods are sustainable for the future or not, and how they can be preserved. The 'modern' house is often regarded as the best form of construction, but in the case of a large number of residents it is not affordable due to the high cost of obtaining modern materials. Materials are regarded as renewable, as long as they are used on a sustainable basis. Vernacular buildings have the advantage that they make use of local knowledge and skills, but population pressure may reduce the supply of natural resources. Vernacular housing could be supported by providing ecological education and helping people to preserve local renewable resources.

At present no research into vernacular housing has been undertaken in Namibia, since the necessary funding is not available, not even at the University of Namibia (conversation with Prof. Haacke June 2000). Nor has any attempt been made to preserve vernacular housing or to integrate traditional building techniques into 'modern' housing, with a view to sustainable development. In some cases, libraries and museums provide the only available information and materials, as more and more indigenous knowledge disappears.

The strengthening of indigenous knowledge in Namibia, as spelled out, for example, in the Agenda 21 (UNCED 1992: chapter 26), is not promoted in the case of vernacular housing. Conradie (quoted by Ferreira and Haacke 1982:78) provided a response to this predicament, when he described the situation in southern Namibia in 1909:

"Ik beschrif dit soort huis, opdat toekomstig geschlagten mogen weten hoe hun voorouders geleefd hebben. Want ik vrees, dat matjiesgoed geheel en al verdwijnen zal wegens de langdurige droogten".

(I describe this type of house, because future generations may want to know how their ancestors lived. I fear, that the mat-huts will completely disappear as a result of the long-lasting droughts).

M.A. Wienecke
P.O. Box 9359
Windhoek
Namibia
E-mail: awiennam@iafrica.com.na

References
Camesasca, E. (ed.) (1971) History of the house. London: Collins.

Elmenhorst W.L.G. (1926) Das Haus in Südwest-Afrika. Hamburg: University of Hamburg.

Erkkilä, A. and H. Siiskonen (1992) Forestry in Namibia 1850-1990. Joensuu: University of Joensuu.

Haacke, W.H.G. (1982) 'Traditional hut-building technique of the Nama', Cimbebasia, vol. 3, no. 2:77-98.

Marshall, L. (1976) The !Kung of Nyae Nyae. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Marsh, A. and P. Amakali (1994) Trees: Threatened lifeline of northern Namibia. Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan.

Mills, G.T. (1984) An inquiry into the structure and function of space in indigenous settlement in Ovamboland. Unpublished dissertation for the degree of Master of Architecture. University of Cape Town.

Passarge, S. (1907) Die Buschmänner der Kalahari. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.

UNCHS (1998) The Istanbul Declaration and The Habitat Agenda. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat): Nairobi.

UNCED (1992) Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro.

Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) (1999) Report on Activites, at http://www.san.org.za/wimsa/wimsa%20frames.htm

WIMSA (1997) Annual Review, at http://www.san.org.za/sasi/sasi%20frame.htm

Photographs and Websites that may interest readers of this article.